THE  CONTRACTORS' 

AND   BUILDERS' 

HANDBOOK 


By 


WILLIAM    ARTHUR 

v\ 
Author  of 

"The  New  Building  Estimator" 


NEW  YORK 
DAVID   WILLIAMS   COMPANY 

239  WEST  39-TH  STREET 
1911 


COPYRIGHT  1911 

BY 
DAVID    WILLIAMS    COMPANY 


THE    QUINN    A    600F.N    CO.   PRESS 


PREFACE 

THE  CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK  is  divided  into 
three  parts.  The  first  deals  with  the  Contractor  as  a  Business 
Man;  the  second,  with  the  Contractor  as  a  Constructor,  which 
is  not  a  trained  architect,  by  any  means;  and  the  third,  with 
the  Contractor  as  a  Citizen  and  Taxpayer.  The  titles  of 
the  chapters  show  what  subjects  are  considered  to  be  of  most 
value  to  him  in  his  \arious  spheres. 

The  business  affairs  gone  over  in  the  first  book  have  to  be 
attended  to  by  every  contractor.  He  has  to  deal  witli  archi- 
tects and  owners;  he  has  to  buy  from  supply  men;  to  keep 
at  least  some  record  of  his  work  in  books;  and  to  pay  for 
insurance  and  bonds.  After  reading  the  part  on  liability  in- 
surance he  is  more  apt  than  ever  to  attend  carefully  to  this 
branch,  for  here  neglect  may  be  ruinous,  no  matter  how  care- 
fully other  arrangements  are  made,  and  other  parts  of  a 
business  carried  through. 

In  the  second  book  the  contractor  can  find  certainty,  instead 
of  what  he  often  makes  guesswork,  on  plain  construction.  It 
is  written  in  a  way  to  be  easily  understood.  There  are  many 
books  with  formulas  that  might  as  well  be  written  in  Latin 
as  English,  so  far  as  average  contractors  are  concerned.  Yet 
such  men  have  done  a  great  amount  of  plan  drawing  and 
building  independent  of  'an  architect,  and  will  go  on  doing 
so  for  quite  a  long  while  to  come. 

It  is  believed  that  Book  II  is  of  much  value  to  constructors 
of  this  kind.  It  is  true  that  we  have  more  than  30,000  archi- 
tects, draftsmen,  and  designers;  but  there  are  between  600,000 
and  700,000  carpenters;  250,000  saw-mill,  planing-mill,  and 
other  wood- workers ;  17,000  masons;  40,000  plasterers;  and 
300,000  iron  and  steel  workers.  Thousands  of  these  men  make 
plans;  and  probably  half  of  the  active  builders  do  so  at  one 
time  or  another.  By  following  the  instructions  in  Book  II 
they  will  put  up  at  least  safe  buildings.  The  plans  for  the 
artistic  ones  will  continue  to  be  made  by  the  "  regulars." 

iii 

241 309 


iv  PREFACE 

The  third  book  is  given  over  to  subjects  that  are  specially 
interesting  to  the  building  fraternity,  and  yet  are  of  a 
broader  scope  than  anything  dealing  with  strictly  technical 
work  would  be. 

There  are  no  men  who  can  help  to  fight  the  terrific  fire 
waste  better  than  builders,  and  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them 
acquainted  with  the  actual  situation  that  is  a  disgrace  to 
the  United  States. 

The  educational  chapters  will  be  found  interesting  and 
useful.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  the  building  business, 
in  one  branch  or  another,  should  pay  such  a  heavy  proportion 
of  taxes  and  get  such  little  recognition  from  the  high  school 
and  library  authorities. 

In  the  city  of  New  York  alone,  for  example,  we  are  told  in 
The  Building  Age,  January,  1910,  that  the  sum  of  $446,428,657 
was  expended  in  building  during  four  years.  In  the  same 
publication  for  February,  1910,  we  are  informed  that  the  total 
figures  for  fifty  cities  for  1909  were  $719,189,175.  In  Greater 
New  York  alone  the  total  was  $272,175,754.  The  architects, 
contractors,  supply  men,  and  tradesmen  who  handle  that  im- 
mense amount  of  business  can  have  any  kind  of  schools  they 
please,  if  they  work  and  fight  for  them  as  the  farmers  did 
for  their  agricultural  colleges  until  they  had  to  be  established. 

The  chapter  on  Big  Contracts  is  to  show  that  the  men  of 
old  were  greater  builders  than  we  are.  We  outshine  them  in 
other  ways. 

OMAHA,  NEBRASKA,  January,  1911. 


CONTENTS 

BOOK  I 
THE  CONTRACTOR  AS  A  BUSINESS  MAN 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     Relations  Between  the  Contractor  and  the  Arch- 
itect          1 

II.     Relations  Between  the  Contractor  and  the  Owner 

or  Real  Estate  Agent 14 

III.    Relations  Between  the   Contractor  and  Dealers, 

and  Subcontractors           .          .          .          .          .22 
IV.    Relations  Between  the  Contractor  and  His  Work- 
men           26 

V.  Reading  Plans  and  Specifications       .          .          .32 

VI.  The  Preparation  of  Estimates     .          .          .          .37 

VII.  Building  Contracts 50 

VIII.  Nature  of  Contracts 54 

IX.  General  Contracting  or  Subletting       .          .          .61 

X.  Method  of  Work 66 

XI.  Buying  of  Material 71 

XII.  Best  Paying  Work 75 

XIII.  Speculative  Building,  or  Ready-Made  Houses       .     79 

XIV.  Office  Equipment 82 

XV.  Bookkeeping        .          .          .          .          .          .          .89 

XVI.  About  Keeping  Costs 99 

XVII.  Builders'  Law 106 

XVIII.  Insurance  and  Bonds 138 

XIX.  Hand  and  Machine  Labor  .  .145 


vi  CONTENTS 

BOOK  II 
THE  CONTRACTOR  AS  A  CONSTRUCTOR 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  Weights,  Measures,  and  Their  Use        .          .          .151 

II.     Foundations 191 

III.  The  Superstructure   ( 1 )  :   Walls  and  Masonry       .     209 

IV.  The  Superstructure  (2)  :  Floor  Loads  .          .          .     223 
V.  Loads   upon   Posts,   Columns,   Lintels,   Rods,   and 

Ropes 239 

VI.     Concrete  Forms  and  Work   .  .          .          .267 

VII.     Construction  Notes  from  the  San  Francisco  Fire  .     298 

VIII.    A    Short   Chapter 302 

BOOK  III 
THE  CONTRACTOR  AS  A  TAXPAYER 

I.  Fire  Loss  and  Safe  Building 305 

II.  Where    to    Locate  ...  .315 

III.  The  Ideal  Education  for  a  General  Contractor       .     321 

IV.  The  High  Schools,  Libraries,  and  Tradesmen  .          .     335 

V.  A  Little  Library 342 

VI.  Big   Contracts 348 

VII.     Miscellaneous  360 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS' 
HANDBOOK 

BOOK  I 
THE  CONTRACTOR  AS  A  BUSINESS  MAN 

CHAPTER  I 

RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  CONTRACTOR  AND  THE 
ARCHITECT 

In  college  athletics  we  hear  frequently  of  team  work,  when 
the  men  play  together  to  the  best  advantage.  They  have  to  be 
reasonably  well  matched.  The  Percheron  and  the  thorough- 
bred do  not  keep  good  step. 

This  is  the  difficulty  with  the  relations  of  the  architect  and 
the  contractor,  if  we  are  to  believe  all  we  read.  The  one,  we  are 
sometimes  told,  is  of  blooded  stock,  and  the  other  is  great  of 
girth  and  heavy  of  foot.  According  to  good  authority  the 
builder  is  "  rough  and  materialistic." 

It  is  clearly  difficult  to  make  such  a  team  trot  well  abreast, 
but  sometimes  a  little  give  and  take  smooths  over  difficulties. 

Builders  should  remember  that  the  authorities  in  Belgium,  at 
the  International  Congress  in  1903,  defined  an  architect  as  "  An 
artist,  a  gentleman,  and  a  man  of  affairs."  Some  contractors, 
in  their  wrath,  would  occasionally  demur,  and  say  that  certain 
architects  are  anything  but  gentlemen,  especially  when  they 
had  finished  a  losing  contract  for  them. 

Young  Architects.  —  One  of  the  banes  of  a  contractor's  life 
is  the  architect  newly  let  loose  from  school  and  full  of  educated 
ignorance.  When  the  experienced  architect  deals  with  the  ex- 
perienced contractor  they  make  about  the  best  team  that  can 
be  looked  for  in  the  building  line,  and  usually  they  get  along 


2,    ,  ,  CONTRACTORS'  AN£  ^BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

wilh  'little  'fraction;  •  33  ut'  ikh'e  "young  one  may  or  may  not  have 
that  great  gift  of  common  sense.  No  one  can  be  more  merciless 
than  a  theorist.  Any  architect,  by  a  theoretical  enforcement 
of  all  the  provisions  of  his  specifications,  could  ruin  an  ordinary 
contractor  in  a  few  jobs. 

Different  Tasks.  —  An  architect's  business  is  to  design  a 
building,  and  tell  how  it  is  to  be  built;  a  contractor's  is  to  ex- 
ecute the  design  according  to  the  drawings  and  specifications. 
The  two  spheres  are  interrelated,  but  different,  and  a  special 
training  is  required  for  each. 

Flans  and  Plans.  —  There  is  no  trouble  in  working  from  the 
plans  of  a  good,  sensible  architect;  there  is  not  only  trouble 
but  occasionally  dismay  in  looking  over  some  of  the  triumphs 
of  the  Beaux  Arts  heroes.  They  know  too  much  for  the  average 
pocket-book,  but  time  improves  them. 

The  Two  Kinds.  —  The  "  self-made  "  architect  is  not  nearly 
so  well  trained  as  the  one  from  the  schools,  but  he  is  often  more 
human,  as  it  were.  He  will  admit  the  possibility  of  being  mis- 
taken; he  is  willing  to  listen  to  a  suggestion  of  change  for  any 
good  practical  reason;  while  the  graduate  would  only  give  the 
order,  "This  is  the  way;  walk  ye  in  it."  With  him  there  is 
nothing  to  arbitrate. 

Closed  Shop.  —  Contractors  have  to  be  careful  how  they 
attune  themselves  to  the  men  who  in  reality  furnish  them  work. 
Of  the  open  shop  the  architect  can  easily  make  a  closed  shop 
to  the  contractor  by  refusing  to  allow  the  latter  to  figure  in  his 
office  or,  without  going  so  far,  give  such  short  time  on  plans, 
or  lay  down  such  conditions  as  to  make  a  careful  estimate  or 
fulfillment  of  a  contract  next  to  impossible.  For  thousands  of 
years  there  has  been  trouble  on  this  earth,  and  most  of  it  comes 
from  the  abuse  of  power,  on  a  large  or  small  scale.  It  can  be 
exercised  on  the  basis  of  an  eighth  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  so  to 
speak,  as  well  as  full  size.  Architects  are  human. 

In  a  large  city  where  there  are  many  offices  this  course  does 
not  matter  so  much,  but  in  a  small  town  where  there  are  only 
a  few  it  is  in  reality  an  exercise  of  the  boycott  or  the  blacklist. 
In  such  cases  it  may  be  that  the  builder  is  at  fault,  or  the 
architect  may  be  too  domineering  and  exacting. 

Between  Two.  —  The  architect  occupies  a  difficult  position 
in  one  way:  he  stands  between  the  owner  and  the  builder,  and 
while  willing  to  do  some  things  that  the  builder  might  desire, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK         3 

is  held  in  check  by  his  client.  For  example,  it  is  rather  un- 
pleasant for  a  contractor  to  make  up  an  estimate  and  put  in  a 
bid,  yet  never  find  out  how  his  figures  compare  with  those  of  his 
competitors,  at  least  through  the  medium  of  the  architect's 
office.  The  owner  may  want  as  few  people  as  possible  to  know 
what  his  building  is  going  to  cost.  He  may  be  afraid  of  the 
assessor.  As  a  matter  of  fairness,  all  bids  should  be  opened 
and  read  in  the  presence  of  the  bidders.  It  is  the  right  way 
to  do  business.  When  a  contractor  finds  that  certain  of  his 
brethren  always  get  the  best  work  in  an  architect's  office  he 
should  not  waste  his  time  there.  Lightning  does  not  ALWAYS 
strike  in  the  same  place;  and  neither  do  certain  men  ALWAYS 
have  the  lowest  bids. 

List  of  Bidders.  —  An  architect  can  select  a  list  of  con- 
tractors he  wishes  to  give  him  an  estimate  on  a  building,  and 
the  one  who  puts  in  the  lowest  bid  is  entitled  to  the  work. 
Either  this  is  true,  or  he  should  not  be  asked  to  waste  his 
time  making  up  the  figures. 

Too  Many.  —  Like  men  in  other  lines,  an  architect  has  to 
learn  to  say  no.  Some  of  the  magazines  get  five  thousand 
MSS.  in  a  year,  while  only  about  one  in  twenty  can  be 
published.  The  supply  outruns  the  demand.  So  with  build- 
ing contractors.  Half  a  dozen  proposals  are  enough  on  any 
building,  yet  there  are  often  a  score  of  men  who  are  willing 
and  anxious  to  estimate  on  the  work.  On  account  of  the 
time  it  would  take,  if  for  nothing  else,  an  architect  has  to 
decline  to  give  his  plans  to  everyone  who  applies  for  them. 

Kind  of  Bidders.  —  But  there  are  other  reasons  for  refusing 
plans  than  the  time  one:  every  architect  for  the  sake  of 
future  business  has  to  try  to  get  contractors  to  do  his  work 
without  making  trouble  on  account  of  liens,  bad  workman- 
ship, high  charges  for  extras,  and  disputes  of  one  kind  or 
another.  In  time  he  weeds  out  those  who  have  made  him 
trouble  in  the  past. 

An  Opening.  —  But,  again,  lest  anyone  should  think  that 
there  is  no  chance  of  starting  in  a  small  contracting  business 
for  himself  under  such  conditions  and  showing  his  ability 
and  worth,  it  should  be  remembered  that  most  architects, 
on  at  least  fifty  per  cent,  of  their  work,  have  clients  who 
want  $1.23  worth  of  building  for  $0.99.  With  an  owner  like 
that  on  one  side,  and  an  architect  after  his  commission  on 


4         CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  other,  and  both  looking  for  a  third  who  thinks  that  twice 
two  make  five,  there  is  no  reason  for  discouragement. 

No  matter  how  obliging  an  architect  may  be  he  finds  it 
hard  to  supply  this  $0.99  trade;  and  instead  of  taking  his 
list  of  bidders  who  are  comparatively  well  off",  and  not  in- 
clined to  take  contracts  unless  they  get  a  reasonable  price, 
he  looks  around  among  those  who  are  starting  in  business  and 
anxious  to  get  any  kind  of  work  that  offers  more  than 
wages,  and  more  anxious  still  to  get  a  footing  in  a  good 
office.  It  is  usually  later  on  that  they  discover  that  twice 
two  make  only  four — probably  when  a  suit  for  personal 
damages  is  started  and  they  have  no  insurance.  So  that  the 
field  is  always  open. 

Blame.  —  When  disputes  and  mistakes  do  come  up  it  does 
not  always  pay  the  contractor  to  swallow  the  blame  unless  he 
is  clearly  responsible.  It  is  just  about  as  well  to  let  the 
architect  have  his  share  and  take  the  chance  of  his  frown. 
In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  however,  the  best  way  for  everybody 
is  to  make  the  least  of  the  trouble.  But  the  poor  contractor 
should  not  always  be  obliged  to  pay  the  piper  if  he  has  not 
ordered  the  dance. 

The  way  out  of  mistakes  is  often  decided  by  personal  tem- 
perament. In  certain  European  countries,  where  the  news- 
papers are  censored,  there  is  always  something  appearing  that 
displeases  the  authorities,  and  rather  than  have  their  neces- 
sary editors  jailed,  each  office  has  a  "jail  editor,"  the  man 
who  takes  all  the  blame  and  gets  the  cell  and  the  bread  and 
water.  If  a  contractor  feels  like  taking  everything  that 
comes  in  this  way  he  would  probably  end  either  in  the  poor 
farm  or  like  the  old  Scotchman  who  told  his  son  that  he 
made  his  fortune,  "  By  bowing,  sir ;  by  bowing." 

Details.  —  One  of  the  recurring  troubles  of  a  contractor  is 
an  armful  of  elaborate  details  made  out  after  the  contract  is 
signed,  sealed,  and  delivered.  On  a  plan  drawn  to  a  scale 
of  one-fourth  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  or  worse  still,  one-eighth, 
a  few  light  spider  web  scratches  may  mean  $100.00  to  the 
square  inch.  The  only  right  way  is  to  give  out  the  details 
with  the  main  plans  when  the  figuring  is  being  done,  but 
in  the  hurry  of  the  owner  to  get  his  building  started  this  is 
often  quite  impossible,  and  the  estimates  must  be  made  from 
the  regular  scale  drawings. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK          5 

Most  architects  are  reasonable  enough  to  understand  this 
situation,  and  either  let  stonecutters,  planing-mill  men,  cornice 
makers,  and  others  know  what  is  expected,  or  else  give  num- 
bers in  millbook,  dimensions  of  stone,  and  so  forth;  but  there 
are  also  the  other  kind  of  artistic  gentlemen  who,  for  the 
sake  of  enhancing  their  own  reputation,  rather  like  this  blind- 
fold method.  After  a  contract  is  signed  they  give  their 
gargoyles  and  poppyheads,  their  machicolations  and  lacunars, 
their  deep-cut  moldings  and  projections,  their  consoles  and 
entablatures,  until  the  unfortunate  contractor's  head  swims, 
and  he  feels  sick  clear  down  to  the  pit  of  his  stomach.  What 
is  it  but  a  sort  of  legalized  robbery? 

If  a  contractor,  and  especially  a  young  one,  is  making  an 
estimate  on  a  building  from  the  usual  scale  drawings,  he  is 
quite  within  his  rights  when  he  asks  the  architect  what  the 
details  are  to  be.  No  reasonable  architect  will  refuse  to  give 
information ;  if  one  of  the  wrong  kind  should  be  met,  the 
best  thing  a  contractor  can  do  is  to  leave  the  plans  behind 
him,  or  else  put  in  such  a  figure  as  to  make  himself  safe. 

It  should  always  be  remembered,  however,  that  no  verbal 
information  has  any  binding  force  after  a  contract  is  signed. 
The  plans  and  specifications,  as  interpreted  by  the  man  who 
made  them,  and  who  ia  not  likely  to  point  out  his  own  mistakes 
and  prejudice  the  owner  against  himself,  make  up  the  final 
authority. 

Standards.  —  Of  course,  on  the  majority  of  buildings  the 
details  are  well  enough  understood.  If  the  sizes  of  stone 
moldings,  wood  casings,  cornice,  and  other  parts  of  the  build- 
ing are  given,  the  particular  shape  of  the  molding  does 
not  matter  so  much.  Any  one  of  half  a  dozen  styles  may 
be  chosen,  as  the  one  costs  no  more  than  the  other.  With 
special  work  it  is  different. 

Time.  —  In  all  cases  an  architect  should  give  out  details 
as  promptly  as  possible.  Stone  yards  and  planing-mills  can 
not  be  expected  to  lay  aside  the  work  they  are  engaged  in 
just  as  soon  as  a  set  of  details  for  another  building  is  pre- 
sented. Each  job  must,  as  a  rule,  take  its  turn,  and  an 
architect  should  not  hinder  a  contractor  by  making  it  im- 
possible for  him  to  get  his  work  started. 

General  Clauses.  —  Another  great  trouble  comes  with  the 
specification.  It  is  clearly  impossible  for  an  architect  to 


6          CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

specify  every  little  item  in  a  building,  and  he  is  often  driven 
to  what  the  politicians  call  glittering  generalities.  "  Accord- 
ing to  the  satisfaction  of  the  architect,"  "  In  a  first-class 
workmanlike  manner,"  "  Materials  of  the  best  quality,"  are 
a  few,  and  there  are  many  others  of  a  like  nature.  After 
a  time  the  contractors  come  to  understand  what  these  ex- 
pressions mean.  They  are  not  to  be  literally  understood, 
but  are  put  into  the  platform  to  catch  votes.  The  character 
of  the  office  from  which  the  specification  comes  has  to  be 
considered,  and  the  estimate  made  out  to  suit.  But  it  would 
be  easy  for  an  architect  to  put  a  stricter  construction  on  his 
generalities  than  the  one  understood. 

A  first-class  quality  of  work  in  a  western  village  or  mining 
camp  would  not  be  accepted  as  such  in  a  large  city;  and 
what  suits  in  an  ordinary  city  could  not  be  made  to  pass 
in  a  millionaire's  palace  on  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  where 
the  masonry  is  as  fine  as  that  on  the  best  government  work, 
and  the  woodwork  has  to  be  as  good  as  cabinet  finish. 

It  is  clearly  impossible  to  make  any  standard  from  such 
clauses,  and  in  dealing  with  a  new  architect  a  contractor 
should  be  careful  to  find  out  just  about  what  is  expected.  This 
is  especially  the  case  with  the  young  ones.  It  would  be 
ruinous  to  finish  an  ordinary  building  according  to  the  method 
of  the  palaces:  yet  if  the  bricklaying,  stone-cutting,  sand- 
papering of  the  wood,  and  the  quality  of  the  painter's  work 
were  to  be  carried  out  as  some  clauses  in  a  specification, 
rigidly  interpreted,  would  have  it  done,  there  would  be  no 
escape.  "  Everything  in  connection  with  the  building  must 
be  of  the  best  material  and  workmanship."  Well,  what  does 
that  mean?  Almost  anything,  according  to  the  views  of  the 
architect. 

What  is  Included.  —  Then  come  the  usual  clauses  saying 
that  the  job  is  intended  to  be  complete  in  every  part,  and 
that  if  anything  is  shown  on  the  plans,  even  although  it  is 
not  called  for  in  the  specifications,  or  vice  versa,  it  must  be 
done.  Coming  or  going  the  idea  is  to  catch  the  contractor. 

In  the  west,  at  all  events,  the  plumbing  fixtures,  just  to  give 
one  illustration,  are  shown  on  the  plan,  but  not  included  in  the 
general  contractor's  bid,  because  nothing  is  said  about  them  in 
the  specification.  The  plumbing  is  let  in  a  separate  contract. 

Can  the  general  contractor  be  held  to  put  in  the  plumbing? 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK         7 

Not  unless  it  is  specified.  Yet  the  fixtures  are  shown  clearly 
enough.  Of  course  the  contract  usually  provides  that  the 
contractor  is  to  finish  just  such  and  such  parts  of  a  building, 
and  omits  plumbing,  heating,  or  any  work  that  is  let  sepa- 
rately; but  if  a  man  puts  in  a  bid  and  does  not  clearly 
specify  what  he  is  going  to  do  he  might  get  into  trouble, 
not,  indeed,  with  such  a  clear  case  as  plumbing,  but  with 
some  items  of  lower  cost  that  might  be  held  to  belong  to 
the  general  contract.  As  will  be  found  in  a  later  chapter, 
a  bid  is  virtually  a  contract  as  soon  as  it  is  accepted. 

These  all-embracing  clauses  are  necessary,  in  a  way,  be- 
cause no  man  or  woman  can  possibly  specify  every  trifling 
item  in  a  building;  but  it  is  equally  clear  that  whatever  is 
not  indicated  by  the  plan  as  structurally  necessary  should  be 
mentioned  in  the  specification,  if  it  amounts  to  anything 
at  all. 

Nine  times  out  of  ten  the  owner  will  get  a  cheaper  bid 
if  everything  is  clearly  understood  and  not  left  to  guesswork; 
for  in  this  case  the  contractor  has  to  guess  high  enough  to 
protect  himself. 

Long  Specifications.  —  This  does  not  mean  that  specifica- 
tions a  mile  long  should  be  made,  for  too  large  a  volume  of 
instructions  and  warnings  are  apt  to  frighten  bidders  into 
making  higher  bids  than  are  necessary. 

System.  —  Government  specifications  are  usually  numbered 
line  by  line;  and  an  index  is  a  valuable  feature  of  others. 
By  these  or  like  methods  it  is  easy  to  refer  to  any  clause 
or  subject.  Ordinary  architects  cannot  be  expected  to  do  this 
kind  of  work,  for  they  are  not  paid  enough  for  it. 

Precedence.  —  The  specification  describes  the  quality  of  the 
work  and  materials,  and  the  sizes  are  given  on  the  plans, 
but  in  case  of  any  discrepancy  the  former  takes  precedence. 

Combination.  —  Some  railroads  make  both  plans  and  speci- 
fications of  the  drawing  sheets  themselves.  Bills  of  the 
material  required  are  also  put  on  in  this  way.  When  many 
buildings  are  to  be  erected  at  different  times  and  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  this  is  an  economical  way,  when  the 
work  is  done  by  the  company  itself,  as  it  saves  a  great 
amount  of  labor,  but  the  method  has  disadvantages. 

Contracts  could  not  be  let  by  it,  as  the  specification  is  not 
nearly  complete  enough ;  and  it  makes  no  allowance  for 


8         CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

improvement  in  building.  It  is  too  much  trouble  to  change 
tracings,  and  wood  wainscoting  is  put  on  kitchens  and  halls 
long  years  after  all  progressive  cities  have  banished  such 
work  from  their  codes,  and  substituted  the  more  sanitary 
plaster  which  becomes  as  hard  as  a  rock;  and  the  most  ex- 
pensive white  pine  is  called  for  in  an  age  when  it  has  long 
been  a  luxury.  If  a  contractor  runs  across  any  sheets  of 
this  kind  he  should  be  careful.  What  was,  is  not  always 
what  is. 

Certificate  of  Payment.  —  An  architect  must  give  a  con- 
tractor a  certificate  of  payment  as  the  work  progresses,  ac- 
cording to  the  contract.  If  he  does  not,  the  contractor  may 
sue  him,  or  sue  upon  the  contract.  It  is  usually  a  good 
idea  for  the  architect  and  owner  to  make  the  payments  as 
large,  and  to  turn  them  over  as  promptly,  as  possible  to  the 
contractor,  if  he  is  reliable,  and  they  should  choose  only  such 
a  one  to  do  their  work.  He  is  thus  able  to  pay  his  bills  and 
do  more  business  on  a  small  amount  of  capital.  But  if 
every  payment  is  made  as  small  as  possible,  and  is  held  back 
to  the  last  minute,  then  the  trouble  starts  for  the  man  of 
limited  means.  In  other  words,  it  pays  to  work  with  instead 
of  against  the  "  other  party  to  the  contract." 

FORM    OF   CERTIFICATE 

Some  architects  have  an  excellent  system  of  making  out 
their  certificates  of  payment.  They  have  printed  forms  that 
are  made  out  somewhat  on  the  following  lines: 

OMAHA,  NEB.,  June  8,  1910. 
Order  No.  4  on  J.  B.  Brown,  Owner. 

This  order  certifies  that  J.  B.  Smith,  contractor,  is  entitled  to 
$3,000.00  (three  thousand  dollars)  on  his  contract  with 
J.  B.  Brown,  for  building  described  in  Uniform  Contract, 
dated  November  20,  1909. 

Total   amount  of   contract    $30,000.00 

Extra  No.  1,  Jan.  3,  1910 450.00 


$30,450.00 
Deduction  No.  1,  Jan.  3,  1910   .  180.00 


Statement   at    this    date $30,270.00 

Total  value  of  work  in  place,  June  8,  1910,  $20,500.00. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


DATE 

No.  1,  Dec.  18,  1909 
No.  2,  Jan.  8,  1910 
No.  3,  Feb.  7,  1910 
No.  4,  Mar.  1,  1910 
No.  5,  June  8,  1910 


ESTIMATES     RESERVE 


$2,400.00 

3,300.00 
5,800.00 
3,000.00 
6,000.00 


$240.00 
330.00 
580.00 
300.00 
600.00 


AMOUNT 
PAID 

$2,160.00 
2,970.00 
5,220.00 
2,700.00 
5,400.00 


Total  amount  paid  up  to  June  8,  1910 
Total  balance  . 


$18,450.00 


$11,820.00 


It  is  a  good  idea  to  have  on  each  estimate  sheet  a  record 
of  all  the  estimates  previously  paid,  but  on  some  buildings 
this  might  run  out  to  too  long  a  column.  Letting  the  top 
part  of  the  foregoing  form  remain  unchanged,  a  shorter  one 
might  be  arranged  in  this  or  some  similar  way: 

DATE  ESTIMATES     RESERVE      AMOUNT 

PAID 

Nos.    1,   2,    3,   4, 

as  dated   ....     $14,500.00     $1,450.00     $13,050.00 
No.    5,   June    8, 

1910     6,000.00          600.00         5,400.00 


Total   amount   paid    .  . 


$18,450.00 


Total  balance    $11,820.00 

Each  architect  can  work  out  a  form  for  himself  that  may 
suit  his  requirements  better  than  the  foregoing  suggested 
one.  Blanks  are,  of  course,  left  for  names,  dates,  and  amounts. 

A  receipt  should  also  be  made  out  and  signed  by  the  con- 
tractor. It  should  run  along  the  following  lines: 

OMAHA,  NEB.,  June  8,  1910. 

Received  payment  No.  5  of  $6,000.00  (six  thousand  dollars) 
from  J.  B.  Brown,  owner,  for  partial  payment  on  building 
described  in  Uniform  Contract  dated  November  20,  1909.  The 
attached  statement  is  accepted  as  correct  at  date  of  June  8, 
1910.  J.  B.  SMITH,  Contractor. 


10       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Superintendent.  —  When  an  architect  has  too  much  work 
to  attend  to  himself,  he  hires  a  superintendent  to  oversee  the 
outside  part  of  it.  The  duty  of  the  superintendent,  divested 
of  all  round-about  palaver,  is  simply  to  see  that  the  plans  and 
specifications  are  followed,  and  to  assist  in  the  interpretation 
and  enforcement  of  any  matters  not  clearly  understood  or  dis- 
puted. But  while  he  stands  in  the  place  of  the  architect,  the 
final  appeal  is  to  the  latter.  Festus  may  lay  down  the  law 
in  Csesarea,  but  Caesar  sits  in  Rome. 

Little  Caesar.  —  In  government  and  state  work,  however, 
the  superintendent  has  almost  unlimited  power.  Ordinarily, 
we  cannot  sue  the  state  without  the  consent  of  the  legislature, 
and  who  wants  to  wait  till  it  meets,  even  if  sure  of  obtaining 
consent?  This  means  that  almost  everything  has  to  be  sub- 
mitted to.  Unless  there  is  a  reasonable  and  competent  man  in 
charge  this  condition  is  apt  to  be  at  times  rather  annoying. 
When  he  is  merely  elected  on  some  political  ticket  the  builder 
has  small  chance  of  any  relief,  and  his  bank  account  suffers. 
As  the  state  usually  makes  out  its  own  building  contracts, 
and  makes  them  one-sided,  there  is  no  chance  of  arbitration 
on  any  disputed  question.  There  is  nothing  to  arbitrate. 
For  this  reason,  state  and  government  contracts  should  never 
be  taken  at  a  close  margin. 

An  Architects'  Union.  —  In  1897  there  was  a  license  law 
for  architects  enacted  in  Illinois,  and  the  endeavor  has  been 
made  to  get  other  states  to  fall  into  line.  In  1909  the  builders 
of  Texas  got  together  to  oppose  such  a  law  for  that  state. 
Contractors  sometimes  make  plans  themselves,  and  earn  a 
few  dollars  in  that  way. 

An  eminent  writer  has  said  that,  given  the  proper  per- 
centage, men  will  commit  murder  for  profit;  and  saying 
nothing  whatever  of  the  past  history  of  our  race,  but  looking 
merely  at  the  list  of  500,000  killed  and  mangled  in  the 
United  States  every  year,  when  three-fourths  of  the  butchery 
is  unnecessary,  and  merely  allowed  to  save  money,  we 
are  forced  to  conclude  that  the  writer  was  not  so  very  far 
\vrong. 

Here,  then,  is  the  core  of  this  question.  Architects  do  not 
want  to  commit  murder,  but  they  want  all  the  business  they 
can  get,  and  if  they  can  establish  a  "  closed  shop "  instead 
of  the  present  "open  shop"  in  most  states,  they  will  have 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       11 

better  chances.  But  that  means,  as  a  rule,  that  contractors 
will  have  to  give  up  their  plan-drawing,  or  else  pass  the 
examination. 

There  are  good  features  in  such  a  law,  and  good  reasons 
why  it  should  pass.  It  would  guarantee  a  safer  class  of  con- 
struction than  we  sometimes  see.  Of  course  safe  enough  con- 
struction can  be  had  in  another  way,  that  is,  by  laying  down 
such  provisions  in  the  building  codes,  and  making  such  a 
general  law  for  the  state  as  would  embrace  all  towns  and 
villages  that  have  no  regulations  but  the  will  of  the  owner 
or  builder.  This  would  insure  good  structural  work,  and, 
generally  speaking,  the  license  law  does  not  go  into  the 
artistic  side  of  architecture,  but  is  chiefly  concerned  with 
questions  of  strength  and  sanitary  safeguards.  If  it  was  not 
a  matter  that  touched  the  pocketbook,  there  is  no  reason  why 
contractors  should  not  stand  in  favor  of  such  an  enactment 
in  all  states.  They  really  have  enough  to  do  in  their  own 
sphere  without  entering  that  of  the  architect. 

But  touch  the  pocketbook  and  you  touch  the  heart,  or 
rather  the  stomach  and  all  the  auxiliary,  subsidiary,  and 
accessory  muscles,  chords,  and  nerves  related  thereto.  This 
is  why  contractors  oppose  an  architects'  union.  They  do  not 
want  to  miss  the  chance  of  occasionally  making  a  few  dollars 
themselves,  and  they  are  not  to  blame.  Do  men  not  commit 
murder  for  money — in  a  civilized  way,  of  course? 

Contractors  have  found  out  that  dollars  do  not  grow  on 
trees  like  apples.  It  costs  $40.00  to  become  an  architect  in 
Illinois,  and  an  annual  fee  of  $5.00.  This  would  buy  a 
barrel  of  flour,  some  nice  oranges,  a  hat  with  a  feather  in  it, 
and  quite  a  few  other  little  nick-nacks.  These  United  States 
have  been  built  up  to  a  considerable  size  without  such  a  law, 
and  why  not  just  proceed  along  the  old  lines? 

Of  course  those  who  are  practicing  architecture  previous 
to  the  passage  of  such  a  law  are  allowed  to  continue  without 
an  examination  by  paying  $25.00. 

In  every  county  where  the  architect  erects  a  building  in 
Illinois,  he  has  to  have  his  license  recorded  at  the  court- 
house, and  this  means  more  fees  and  annoyance.  It  is  sur- 
prising how  anxious  men  are  for  a  closed  shop,  a  monopoly. 

A  fine  of  $50.00  to  $500.00  per  week  is  the  penalty  for 
drawing  plans  without  a  license  in  the  territory  already 


12       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

closed.  Bricklayers  and  carpenters  may  be  bad,  but  archi- 
tects are  merciless. 

Of  course  any  builder  may  still  make  plans  if  he  puts  up 
the  building  himself  with  his  force.  He  cannot  practice 
architecture  as  an  architect  does,  however. 

A  union  means  war,  in  a  sense.  It  means  an  organization 
principally  for  the  benefit  of  its  members,  and  only  inci- 
dentally for  the  benefit  of  the  public.  All  physicians  have 
unions,  and  so  do  lawyers  and  preachers.  Certain  conditions 
must  be  complied  with  before  one  can  practice  medicine,  law, 
or  preach.  Rules  are  laid  down  for  the  members.  No  matter 
how  good  a  lawyer  you  may  be,  you  cannot  take  cases  until 
you  have  been  admitted  to  the  bar,  or  union.  Such  is  the 
law,  or  custom.  Of  course  professional  men  would  like  to 
have  the  public  believe  that  they  are  on  a  much  higher  plane 
than  mere  ordinary  mechanics,  but  the  principle  of  their 
union  is  the  same  as  the  ones  we  hear  more  about. 

Incompatibility.  —  In  general,  fair  treatment  of  an  archi- 
tect or  superintendent  is  met  in  a  like  manner.  But  it  must 
be  remembered  that  there  are  people  who  can  no  more  get 
along  well  together  than  cat  and  dog.  In  cases  of  this  kind 
the  best  way  is  to  conclude  that  in  such  a  globe  as  ours, 
about  8,000  miles  in  diameter  and  25,000  in  circumference, 
there  is  vast  room  for  growth  and  unlimited  chances  for 
avoiding  each  other  if  we  are  so  disposed.  "  It  was  held," 
says  a  New  England  historian,  "  that  persons  who  could  not 
get  on  comfortably  with  their  neighbors  should  seek  other 
neighborhood." 

Acceptance.  —  It  is  a  good  idea  to  get  a  written  acceptance 
of  a  building  from  an  architect.  Of  course  the  final  payment 
settles  the  question,  but  a  written  acceptance  is  sometimes 
useful,  though  seldom  given. 

Bad  Foundations.  —  A  contractor  is  sometimes  held  liable 
if  the  foundations  sink  and  the  building  goes  to  pieces.  This 
is  one  reason  why  a  written  acceptance  is  valuable.  Accord- 
ing to  some  of  the  courts  a  contractor  should  know  his 
business  well  enough  not  to  build  a  poor  foundation.  See- 
ing, however,  that  he  does  not  make  the  plans,  nor  figure  up 
the  weights,  nor  proportion  the  footings,  his  best  course, 
in  doubtful  cases,  is  to  get  the  architect  to  authorize  him  in 
writing  or  before  witnesses,  to  go  ahead  with  the  work.  In 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       13 

ordinary  dwellings  a  17-inch  base  on  good  soil  will  carry 
twice  the  weight  that  is  ever  likely  to  come  upon  it;  but 
some  soils  are  so  bad  that  they  would  not  properly  support 
a  hencoop. 

Bribery.  —  This  is  one  subject  that  would  be  pleasanter  to 
leave  untouched.  Architects  of  a  certain  class  are  sometimes 
bribed  by  contractors.  From  of  old  it  has  been  held  that  a 
man  cannot  touch  pitch  without  being  defiled;  and  neither 
can  one  man  bribe  another  without  paying  the  penalty  him- 
self. Crime  and  punishment,  Mr.  Emerson  told  us,  grow 
on  the  same  stem.  If  you  pluck  the  one,  the  other  has  to 
come  with  it,  whether  you  believe  it  or  not.  The  chain 
fastened  to  the  wrist  of  the  slave  has  the  other  unseen  end 
linked  safely  around  the  arm  of  the  slave  owner.  This  is 
the  law.  You  might  as  well  attempt  to  pull  the  stars  from 
above  you  as  to  try  to  change  this  law. 

Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  golden  image  set  up  in  the 
plain  of  Dura,  and  everybody  had  to  fall  down  and  worship 
it  or  face  punishment.  Our  new  idol  now  is  "  Business,"  and 
"  Success  "  as  expressed  in  dollars.  Success  is  pleasant,  and  it 
it  natural  to  work  and  wish  for  it;  but  if  it  has  to  be  based 
upon  bribery  one  is  better  working  in  a  ditch  at  ditch  wages. 

If  you  should  happen  to  run  across  Everybody's  Magazine 
for  October,  1907,  you  will  find  a  story  of  charges  for  extras 
that  will  make  the  most  hardened  contractor  gasp.  One  of 
the  men  connected  with  the  business  has  since  committed 
suicide,  and  there  have  been  more  than  one  who  went  to  the 
next  world  unbidden  rather  than  stay  here  and  face  his 
record. 

Photographs.  —  The  camera  is  being  used  by  the  large  con- 
struction companies  more  and  more  to  keep  down  disputes, 
if  possible,  or  to  make  ready  for  them  if  they  do  come;  and 
also  to  show  progress.  On  two  time  jobs  I  had  a  few  photo- 
graphs taken,  and  that  settled  all  talk  of  penalty,  for  the 
owners  were  at  fault. 

The  contractors  on  the  new  Cook  County  Poor  Infirmary, 
at  Oak  Forest,  111.,  took  fifteen  photos,  twice  a  month,  of 
the  twenty-two  buildings.  They  are  7"  x  9",  and  there  are 
altogether  about  350  of  them,  bound  and  ready  for  use  or 
reference  at  any  time.  Do  not  forget  the  photographer.  He 
may  save  you  from  architect  and  owner. 


CHAPTER  II 

RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  CONTRACTOR  AND  THE 
OWNER  OR  REAL  ESTATE  AGENT 

"Never  build  before  you  are  five-and-f orty ;  have  five  years 
income  in  hand  before  you  lay  a  brick;  and  always  calculate 
the  expense  at  double  the  estimate." 

Knowledge.  —  The  average  owner  does  not  know  nearly  so 
much  about  building  as  the  architect,  and  for  this  very 
reason  is  occasionally  harder  to  deal  with.  With  an  owner, 
you  may  sometimes  find  it  an  easy  matter  to  charge  a  tolerably 
heavy  price  for  an  extra,  while  looking  as  innocent  as  possible, 
but  the  rule  works  the  other  way  also.  You  may  be  giving 
A.  B.  C.,  the  owner,  a  reasonable  price  and  the  best  of  work- 
manship, but  he  has  to  take  everything  "  upon  suspicion," 
as  it  were,  while  the  architect  understands  the  situation. 
The  owner  may  sometimes  even  believe  that  the  two  building 
allies  are  in  a  conspiracy  to  divorce  him  from  some  of  his 
ready  cash,  when  they  are  doing  everything  in  their  power 
to  treat  him  fairly. 

There  are  many  things  about  a  building  to  a  person  un- 
familiar with  it  that  do  not  seem  quite  right,  and  yet  are  so. 
I  once  had  a  man  tell  me  that  the  kind  of  mortar  he  was 
acquainted  with  had  a  white  color,  and  while  the  dark  stuff 
I  was  using  might  be  all  right,  he  did  not  like  the  look  of  it. 
It  was  good  cement,  and  for  the  purpose  was  twice  as  good 
as  the  lime  mortar.  He  was  getting  a  better  job  than  he 
understood. 

Quality.  —  Then,  the  timber  may  have  some  harmless  wind 
shakes  that  look  rather  dangerous;  and  an  occasional  soft 
brick  put  in  the  center  of  a  21 -inch  wall  gives  rise  to  a  dread 
that  the  weight  above  will  crush  it  to  powder;  and  so  on  in 
many  ways. 

Some  owners  who  have  built  have  been  cheated,  and  it  is  a 
good  old  proverb  that  says,  "  Once  bit,  twice  shy." 

14 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       15 

The  dangers  of  inferior  material  and  workmanship  are,  of 
course,  principally  in  the  lump  sum  contract,  and  with  irre- 
sponsible contractors.  If  the  owner  takes  the  other  kinds  of 
contract,  or  deals  with  the  right  man  under  any  kind,  the 
risk  is  done  away  with. 

Reasons.  —  Both  architect  and  contractor  should  explain, 
as  far  as  they  can,  why  such  and  such  qualities  are  used, 
and  give  the  reasons  for  a  high  price.  Take  as  an  illustration, 
quarter-sawed  flooring.  Whether  of  yellow  pine  or  oak  it  is 
much  higher  in  price  than  the  ordinary  flat-grain  material, 
but  it  is  superior  in  quality.  When  an  owner  is  shown  that 
the  edge  grain  yellow  pine  will  wear  down  clear  to  the  bottom 
without  slivering,  and  is  told  of  the  waste  necessary  to  man- 
ufacture it  by  first  quartering  the  log,  he  understands  why 
it  is  used  and  why  the  price  is  high,  and  is  satisfied.  There 
are  a  score  of  features  all  through  a  building  that  may  be 
explained  to  an  owner  in  this  way. 

Time.  —  One  of  the  principal  troubles  between  a  contractor 
and  an  owner  arises  with  the  time  taken  to  complete  the 
contract.  The  owner,  once  he  has  finally  concluded  to  build, 
wants  his  building  just  as  soon  as  possible,  and  not  un- 
frequently  a  little  sooner.  That  he  himself  may  have  let 
months  of  good  weather  go  past  unused  while  he  played  see- 
saw does  not  count.  After  the  order  is  given  he  wants  results. 
He  usually  forgets  that  the  contractor  wants  his  profit  at  the 
earliest  possible  date  also,  and  that  he  has  no  particular 
object  in  delaying  work,  but  every  incentive  to  complete  it. 
It  sometimes  happens,  however,  that  a  contractor  is  pushed 
on  other  contracts,  and  has  an  insufficient  force  on  the  one 
belonging  to  A.  B.  C.,  the  unfortunate  victim,  in  which  case 
he  has  just  cause  of  complaint. 

Good  Construction.  —  But  every  builder  knows  that  delays, 
unless  too  serious,  are  really  to  the  advantage  of  the  owner. 
I  remember  going  to  look  at  a  building  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  A  water  tank  had  been  filled  on  the  roof  when  the 
walls  were  green,  and  the  structure  went  to  pieces.  When 
story  after  story  is  added  too  quickly  on  a  masonry  building 
there  is  no  time  given  for  the  materials  to  get  the  necessary 
bond,  and  the  natural  result  follows  when  the  load  goes  on 
top  of  the  soft  mass.  In  many  cases  the  green  walls  are 
swung  out  of  line  through  neglect  of  bracing,  and  sometimes 


16       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  whole  building  is  thrown  out  of  plumb.  The  famous  lean- 
ing tower  of  Pisa  was  built  plumb,  but  the  ground  yielded. 
Our  masonry  will  not  hold  together  like  the  old  kind. 

No  stronger  buildings  than  the  new  reinforced  concrete  ones 
are  erected,  but  quite  a  number  of  them  have  collapsed  before 
they  were  finished.  The  usual  reason  was  the  removal  of 
the  forms  too  soon.  Concrete  goes  on  hardening  for  three 
years,  but  we  pull  out  the  supports  in  three  days,  and  then 
hold  up  our  hands  when  the  dust  flies  and  our  work  falls. 

All  this  haste  does  not  pay  an  owner,  but  he  insists  upon 
speed,  and  quite  often  the  trucks  are  bringing  in  the  goods  to 
overload  the  warehouse  at  the  one  door  while  the  bricklayers 
are  going  out  the  other. 

She.  —  It  is  the  same  with  dwellings.  In  this  case  the 
WOMAN  is  the  one  who  is  to  blame.  She  is  in  a  great  hurry 
to  get  into  the  new  home.  The  one  she  is  in  may  not  be 
up-to-date  any  more  than  the  dress  of  Abraham's  day  would 
be,  and  naturally  she  wants  to  get  up  with  the  procession. 
It  is  a  laudable  enough  feeling,  but  when  she  insists  upon 
rushing  the  work  too  much  she  is  apt  to  have  to  pay  a 
rather  heavy  price  in  the  end  for  the  "  style  "  we  all  more  or 
less  like.  There  is  no  danger  of  collapse  here,  as  a  rule,  but 
damp  is  the  enemy. 

Time  Limit.  —  There  is  another  kind  of  a  time  limit  than 
the  one  the  owner  likes  to  set.  This  is  the  one  the  contractor 
should  look  out  for.  Prices  rise  sometimes.  A  few  weeks  or  a 
few  months  may  make  quite  a  difference  in  the  cost  of  the 
materials  for  a  building.  As  a  bid  is  practically  a  contract 
when  it  is  accepted,  it  is  not  well  to  leave  it  too  long  in  the 
hands  of  an  owner  or  architect  unless  the  bidder  is  sure  of  his 
ground.  No  one  should  expect  a  bid  to  hold  good  for  more  than, 
say,  a  month,  and  if  a  decision  is  not  made  before  that  time  the 
contractor  should  protect  himself.  The  best  and  easiest  way 
is  simply  to  set  a  time  limit  in  the  bid,  if  there  is  any 
risk  of  a  rising  market. 

Quality  and  Damp.  —  When  a  contractor  is  behind  time  on 
a  dwelling  house  he  is  really  adding  to  its  value.  Before 
plastering  he  is  giving  the  timbers  time  to  dry,  and  after 
all  we  have  discovered  with  our  dry  kilns  and  so  forth,  there 
is  nothing  that  equals  air-dried  lumber.  When  every  joist 
is  green  the  trouble  comes  when  the  heat  is  turned  on  for 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       17 

the  first  winter.  Contractors  have  seen  the  shrinkage  scores 
of  times.  The  joists  shrink,  the  plaster  cracks,  and  if  the 
wall  paper  is  on  that  cracks  also,  an  opening  appears  at  the 
base,  and  the  joints  of  the  woodwork  open.  It  is  provoking, 
but  green  lumber  and  not  the  contractor  is  to  blame.  If  it 
is  said  that  he  should  buy  only  seasoned  stuff,  he  might 
reply  that  it  would  be  well  to  put  this  down  in  the  specifica- 
tion. It  is  often  found  there,  but  everyone  understands  that 
if  this  provision  were  really  enforced  a  much  higher  price 
would  have  to  be  paid  for  the  lumber  in  a  building.  In  rush 
seasons  buildings  often  have  to  be  held  waiting  for  lum- 
ber. It  comes  soaking,  and  it  is  a  case  of  take  it  or 
let  the  building  stand.  If  the  dry  lumber  clause  were  put 
in  all  specifications  and  rigidly  enforced,  the  cost  would  soar 
in  quite  a  few  dwellings.  The  next  best  thing  to  do  is  to  let 
the  air  get  a  chance  of  doing  its  old-time  beneficent  work. 

Yet  the  WOMAN  keeps  hammering  away  at  the  contractor 
to  get  the  plaster  on,  and  the  wood  finish  on  that  as  quickly 
as  possible.  The  plaster  should  be  bone-dry  before  the  finish 
is  put  on.  Millwork  and  hardwood  floors  are  often  ruined 
beyond  hope  of  repair  when  laid  in  a  damp  building.  Fine 
millwork  absolutely  will  not  hold  together  when  put  on 
damp  walls.  The  contractor  is  not  to  blame  when  he  refuses 
to  put  it  on.  It  comes  out  of  a  dry  kiln  in  the  first  place, 
and  a  warm  mill  in  the  next,  and  the  change  is  too  great.  The 
enemy  is  not  cold  air,  but  dampness. 

Strict  Construction  Versus  Equity.  —  The  question  of  time 
causes  endless  friction  and  petty  quarreling  between  the 
owner  and  the  contractor.  Of  course,  the  contractor  should 
not  sign  time  contracts  that  are  too  limited,  but  when  a 
man  has  a  wife  and  ten  children  depending  upon  him  he  has 
to  shut  his  eyes  and  gulp  down  many  other  things  besides 
the  raw  oysters  that  his  soul  loves. 

Technically,  legally,  the  owner  is  right  and  the  contractor 
wrong  in  this  matter  of  building,  sadly  behind  time  set  for 
completion;  looked  at  in  the  broader  sense,  with  an  eye  to 
the  structure  as  a  permanent  and  expensive  investment,  the 
contractor  is  really  doing  the  owner  a  service.  It  takes  time 
to  season  lumber  and  make  good  workmanship. 

Payments.  —  When  an  owner  pays  a  certain  proportion  of 
his  contract  price,  he  understands  and  the  contractor  under- 


18       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

stands,  that  the  right  proportion  of  the  money  is  to  be  turned 
over  to  the  supply  men  and  subcontractors.  To  take  the 
money  given  by  one  owner  to  pay  bills  for  the  work  of  someone 
else  is,  generally  speaking,  dishonest.  A  strict  mathematical 
line  cannot  be  always  drawn  in  the  matter,  for  there  are 
occasions  when  a  temporary  shortage  will  justify  the  con- 
tractor in  making  Peter  pay  Paul;  but  Peter  does  not  want 
it  done  in  that  way.  He  likes  to  have  his  own  bills  paid 
with  his  own  money. 

Payment  for  Extras.  —  In  most  cases  it  is  best  to  decide  the 
price  of  extras  before  going  ahead,  and  to  get  a  written  order 
for  them.  The  amount  settled  on  should  be  paid  for  in  full 
as  soon  as  the  work  is  done,  or  at  the  first  payment  on  the 
main  contract  afterwards.  There  is  no  reason  for  reserving 
ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  on  extras.  The  owner  is  safe 
enough  with  this  reserve  on  the  original  amount  of  the 
contract. 

It  is  bad  practice  to  put  off  the  settlement  for  all  extras 
until  the  completion  of  the  building.  This  course  often  means 
a  fight.  With  the  ten  or  fifteen  per  cent,  reserve  in  the 
hands  of  the  owner,  the  contractor  is  at  a  disadvantage.  A 
quarrel  over  a  fifty  dollar  extra  might  give  an  owner  who 
wanted  an  excuse  the  chance  of  delaying  a  settlement  for 
years.  As  things  are  now  in  most  states  a  court  fight  carried 
to  the  limit  means  several  years.  Extras  should,  if  possible, 
be  settled  upon  before  execution.  "  Short  accounts  make 
long  friends." 

Keys.  —  Some  of  our  church  friends  have  a  good  deal  to  say 
about  "  the  po\ver  of  the  keys."  Contractors  also  have  their 
key  disputes.  Is  it  legal  to  hold  the  keys  and  refuse  ad- 
mission to  the  building  until  the  last  payment  is  turned  over 
or  arrangements  made  for  it?  The  general  conclusion  is  that 
this  should  be  done  only  as  a  last  resort. 

I  once  tried  the  key  method  on  a  bank  building,  under 
dire  threats  of  some  subcontractors  who  had  part  of  a  balance 
of  about  $18,000  coming  to  them.  The  bankers,  who  knew 
of  other  tricks  than  those  relating  to  discount  and  interest, 
wrote  to  the  hardware  firm  and  got  duplicates,  moved  over 
their  bullion,  notes,  and  wastepaper  baskets,  and  one  morning 
when  I  went  down  to  keep  watch  and  ward,  I  found  the  front 
door  open  and  the  bank  doing  business,  not  at  the  same  old 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       19 

stand,  but  at  the  new  one.  The  payment  was  made  shortly 
afterwards  without  any  trouble.  After  all,  there  are  better 
methods  than  the  one  that  relies  on  the  "  power  of  the 
keys." 

Borrowing.  —  But  it  should  also  be  remembered  that  many 
a  contractor  has  been  put  out  of  business  by  an  unscrupulous 
owner  who  got  into  the  building  and  then  told  him  to  go 
ahead  and  sue,  or  file  a  lien,  or  do  anything  else  he  pleased. 
A  lien  would  draw  interest  at,  say,  seven  per  cent.,  and 
probably  having  already  borrowed  all  that  the  building  would 
stand,  the  owner  made  up  another  loan  from  the  builder. 
With  the  delays  possible  in  our  "  technicality "  courts,  it 
often  takes  years  to  get  a  decision,  and  in  the  meantime 
the  builder  may  be  seriously  embarrassed,  for  it  is  not  always 
possible  to  borrow  money  on  the  security  of  a  lien.  It  is 
sometimes  impossible  to  do  so  on  government  bonds. 

Security.  —  Herein  is  a  strange  anomaly:  The  owner  asks 
the  builder  for  a  large  bond,  yet  the  latter  may  have  the 
more  property  of  the  two;  why  should  he  not  get  a  bond 
in  return  that  the  owner  would  pay  the  amount  of  the  contract 
as  agreed?  It  may  be  said  that  the  building  is  security,  but 
so  are  the  buildings  that  the  contractor  owns  on  his  side  of 
the  question;  and  besides,  what  use  has  a  contractor  for  a 
church,  a  hospital,  or  a  large  dwelling?  The  storekeeper  may 
have  many  suits  of  clothes  in  his  window,  but  if  he  sells 
none  he  has  to  go  out  of  business.  A  contractor's  business 
is  to  build  houses — usually  for  others. 

When  a  builder  has  any  doubt  about  the  ability  of  an 
owner  to  pay  as  agreed  upon,  he  should  ask  that  the  money 
be  deposited  in  a  bank,  subject  to  the  certificates  of  the 
architect,  or  have  some  such  arrangement  for  certainty  of 
payment  as  the  work  progresses.  There  is  no  sense  in  going 
into  trouble  with  open  eyes. 

Public  Work.  —  When  the  public  is  the  owner,  as  in  gov- 
ernment, state,  county,  and  municipal  work,  payment  is  gen- 
erally sure,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  a  long  while  in  coming. 
Contractors  should  inquire  if  the  warrants  given  are  accepted 
on  a  cash  basis  at  face  value.  A  lien  cannot  be  put  on 
public  work. 

Commission.  —  When  we  come  to  the  real  estate  man  aa 
an  agent  of  the  owner  there  arises  another  little  complication. 


20       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

A  percentage  is  expected  on  all  work  done.  This  is  legal 
enough  and  proper  enough  under  certain  conditions. 

When  our  western  boom  burst  in  the  nineties  I  went  to  a 
large  city  and  opened  a  jobbing  shop.  A  real  estate  man 
gave  me  a  small  piece  of  work  as  a  starter,  with  a  promise 
of  more.  The  whole  thing  ran  to  only  a  few  dollars,  and 
when  the  bill  was  presented,  he  told  me  that  I  had  forgotten 
his  commission  of  ten  per  cent.  I  began  to  write  it  at  the 
foot  of  the  bill  when  he  stopped  proceedings,  and  said  that 
he  did  not  want  it  that  way,  but  added  to  each  item  so  that 
his  name  and  commission  would  not  appear  at  all.  I  refused 
to  so  arrange  it,  and  that  ended  my  dealings  with  him  and 
also  all  prospect  of  work  among  his  class. 

Since  then  I  have  been  shown  printed  rules  of  a  real  estate 
exchange  governing  the  conduct  of  the  members,  and  the 
ten  per  cent,  commission  is  there.  Why  not?  Whether  the 
agents  get  ten  per  cent,  or  twenty  per  cent,  is  a  matter  for 
them  and  the  owners  to  decide.  This  charge  is,  of  course, 
in  addition  to  their  regular  charge  for  taking  care  of  the 
property  and  drawing  the  rentals.  If  the  owner  is  willing 
to  pay  it,  the  percentage  is  just  as  legitimate  as  the  other 
one  charged  for  selling  the  property. 

But  if  the  commission  is  proper,  why  is  it  not  put  in  the 
bill  the  same  as  any  other  item?  Why  leave  that  particular 
one  to  an  understanding  between  the  agent  and  the  con- 
tractor? WThy  hide  it?  Where  does  the  owner  come  in, 
except  as  to  paying  the  bill? 

A  contractor  in  making  out  bills  of  this  kind  should  either 
mark  down  this  percentage  the  same  as  anything  else,  or  try 
some  other  work  for  a  living.  He  is  making  it  more  difficult 
for  every  honest  contractor  to  do  business. 

It  must  sometimes  amount  to  so  much  as  to  make  a  plain 
statement  look  a  little  off  color.  The  jobbing  contractor  has 
often  to  do  so  much  for  ten  per  cent,  himself  that  it  may 
seem  a  little  unreasonable  to  both  him  and  the  owner  to 
turn  over  a  like  amount  to  the  agent  for  doing  practically 
nothing,  but  if  both  the  others  are  agreeable  that  settles  the 
matter  for  the  contractor.  It  is  none  of  his  business.  His 
part  in  it  is  merely  to  add  the  commission  in  plain  black 
figures  at  the  foot  of  the  bill,  coupled  with  the  name  of  the 
happy  man  who  gets  it.  In  remodeling  and  heavy  repair 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       21 

work  all  we  can  do  is  to  extend  our  congratulations  to  the 
much  abused  middle  man.  Here,  if  nowhere  else,  "  he  gets 
what  is  coming  to  him." 

Temperament.  —  In  public  work  one  has  to  be  careful  of 
the  kind  of  men  he  is  going  to  deal  with.  Some  of  them  are 
elected  for  only  short  periods  and  are  so  filled  up  with  a  sense 
of  their  greatness  that  they  can  feel  the  earth  tremble  as 
they  walk.  Not  a  few  contractors  have  gone  to  figure  work 
of  this  kind,  and  after  "  sizing  up "  the  situation  have  re- 
frained from  putting  in  a  bid.  If  on  state  work,  you  cannot 
sue  and  have  to  swallow  whatever  comes  along.  It  is  well, 
therefore,  to  find  out  before  going  ahead  whether  you  must 
deal  with  reasonable  men  or  with  little  czars. 


CHAPTER  III 

RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  CONTRACTOR  AND 
DEALERS,  AND  SUBCONTRACTORS 

Change  of  Front.  —  When  you  give  a  man  power  you  soon 
find  out  what  he  is  made  of.  When  dealing  with  an  architect 
or  an  owner  the  contractor  has  had  to  be  reasonable,  because 
the  power  lies  with  those  who  give  him  orders  and  pay  him 
for  his  work.  With  the  supply  men  and  subcontractors  he 
is  on  another  footing.  He  is  now  a  man  to  be  handled  with 
gloves. 

Try,  Try  Again.  —  Some  general  contractors  have  acquired 
the  habit  of  thinking  that  a  subcontractor's  time  belongs  to 
them.  W7hen  an  architect  keeps  them  figuring  for  a  long 
period  without  results,  and  they  instinctively  know  that 
something  is  wrong,  they  see  the  injustice  of  the  situation; 
but  when  they  take  a  subcontractor's  or  supply  man's  bid, 
make  up  their  totals,  get  the  contract,  and  refuse  to  turn 
over  the  share  of  it  that  morally  belongs  to  those  who  have 
given  them  figures,  the  status  seems  to  be  changed.  The 
right  kind  of  contractors  do  not  do  this,  but  some  wax  rich 
on  the  practice.  Fair  treatment  pays  in  the  long  run. 
What  is  known  as  "  peddling  of  bids  "  does  not  pay, — except 
in  money  quite  often. 

Fairness.  —  After  a  contract  has  been  let  on  the  basis  of 
the  accepted  figures  of  supply  men  and  subcontractors,  a 
general  contractor  has,  in  a  sense,  no  moral  right  over  this 
part  of  the  work.  Of  course  he  is  right  in  demanding  security, 
if  he  wishes,  that  the  others  shall  be  able  to  deliver  their 
part  of  the  work;  but  that  being  understood,  he  is  morally 
held  to  give  it  to  them  without  deduction  from  their  figures, 
except  that  he  may  ask  them  to  cut  off  something  from  their 
total  if  he  has  had  to  reduce  his  own.  But  in  no  case  are 
they  obliged  to  do  this.  He  should  first  get  their  permission 
before  doing  any  cutting. 

22 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       23 

In  some  cases  the  actual  figures  do  not  always  decide  which 
man  is  entitled  to  the  work,  but  in  most  they  do.  There 
may  be  other  reasons.  Properly,  however,  the  time  to  find 
but  those  other  reasons  is  when  making  up  the  total  of  a 
general  proposal.  It  might  be  found  out,  for  example,  that 
some  subcontractor  had  quarreled  with  the  owner,  and  that 
the  latter  \vould  not  allow  him  to  lift  a  hand  on  another 
of  his  buildings,  or  that  the  subcontractor's  son  had  eloped 
with  and  married  the  owner's  daughter,  and  that  her  father 
"  had  it  in "  for  anyone  of  the  other  family.  Why  should  a 
general  contractor  put  his  head  in  a  hornets'  nest?  In  some 
cases  his  wise  course  is  to  go  to  the  subcontractor  and  tell 
him  that  in  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  they  stood 
together,  one  and  indivisible,  but  in  this  particular  case  he 
had  to  refuse  to  run  the  risk. 

Written  Bids.  —  All  subcontractors  should  give  written  bids 
to  the  general  contractor,  and  they  should  be  made  out  "  in 
accordance  with  the  plans  and  specifications."  Otherwise  a 
subcontractor  might  say  that  he  did  not  include  this,  that, 
or  the  other  item  that  a  general  contractor  has  to  be  re- 
sponsible for.  Some  subcontractors  seem  to  think  that  there 
is  a  hoodoo  in  pen  and  ink. 

Payments.  —  Supply  men  are  usually  rich  enough  to  lie 
out  of  their  money  for  a  longer  time  than  subcontractors, 
who,  as  a  rule,  require  their  share  as  soon  as  the  owner  gives 
the  total  of  the  architect's  order  to  the  general  contractor. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  supply  men  should  not  get 
whatever  they  are  entitled  to  as  well  as  anybody  else,  for 
they  should,  but  merely  that  they  are  better  able  to  stand 
any  delay  than  the  ordinary  subcontractor. 

An  Example.  —  One  of  the  leading  business  men  of  Chicago, 
who  told  the  story  of  his  rise  from  a  $65  start  to  handling 
a  large  annual  trade,  let  us  know  one  of  his  favorite  methods 
of  getting  ahead.  It  was  to  keep  the  big  supply  men  in  his 
debt,  and  thus  to  make  them  as  eager  to  see  him  forge  to  the 
front  as  he  was  himself.  They  wanted  their  money. 

This  plan  will  work  when  only  a  few  try  it,  but  suppose 
everybody  fell  into  line,  what  kind  of  a  condition  would  it 
soon  bring  about  in  the  business  world?  It  would  really  be 
doing  business  on  someone  else's  money.  But  if  enough  sup- 
plies were  sold  to  justify  it,  many  a  rich  dealer  would  be 


24       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

well  enough  pleased  with  the  arrangement,  as  the  wholesalers 
were  in  the  case  above. 

One  or  Many?  —  Perhaps  a  hint  may  be  had  as  to  one  way 
of  succeeding  in  contracting  from  the  method  of  the  Chicago 
business  man.  He  interested  the  wholesalers  in  his  success; 
and  if  the  general  contractor  can  interest  all  of  the  sub- 
contractors by  some  method  by  which  their  pocketbook  would 
not  suffer,  he  might  obtain  a  force  that  would  push  him 
forward.  Here  comes  up  the  question  discussed  in  another 
chapter  as  to  whether  it  is  best  to  do  all  the  work  in  a  contract 
oneself,  and  thus  cut  off  every  profit,  according  to  the  Stand- 
ard Oil  method,  or  spread  it  out  and  interest  others  in  one's 
success. 

Borrowing  Money.  —  Does  a  banker  come  under  the  head 
of  a  supply  man?  In  a  book  of  this  kind  that  seems  to  be 
his  proper  place  if  we  are  to  recognize  him  at  all.  He 
supplies  money. 

A  great  American  orator  once  said  that  no  business  can 
continue  to  pay  ten  per  cent,  on  borrowed  money  and  live. 
It  is,  therefore,  not  considered  wise  to  borrow  too  often  at 
this  rate. 

There  are  some  who  never  borrow,  like  the  Frenchman  in 
the  novel.  He  paid  cash  for  everything  and  kept  his  head 
straight.  But  some  troubles  came  up  that  threatened  to 
conquer  him,  and  he  went  to  the  banker  for  a  loan.  That 
awakened  suspicion  at  once.  His  principle  of  never  borrow- 
ing was  well  understood,  and  the  banker  correctly  reasoned 
that  there  was  something  seriously  wrong  when  he  wanted  it. 
The  loan  was  refused,  and  the  blow  fell. 

I  have  read  of  others  who,  understanding  this  principle  well 
enough,  borrow  from  the  bank  when  they  do  not  require 
money,  pay  promptly,  in  order  to  make  a  reputation  for 
themselves,  and  in  case  of  a  crisis  they  thus  get  a  heavier 
loan  than  they  are  really  entitled  to.  This  is  not  dealing 
altogether  fairly  with  the  banker.  If  everybody  else  played 
a  game  of  deceit  the  business  world  would  not  hold  together. 
The  banker  has  to  rely  upon  the  honesty  of  his  customers 
as  well  as  they  have  to  rely  upon  his  when  they  intrust  him 
with  their  money,  and  things  would  move  smoother  all  around 
if  we  exacted  about  the  same  fair  dealing  from  ourselves  as 
we  demand  from  him.  Many  a  man  holds  up  his  hands  in 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       25 

astonishment  on  reading  of  a  dishonest  banker  who  himself 
has  been  practically  lying  to  that  same  banker  for  years. 

The  best  principle  would  seem  to  be  to  borrow  when  you 
really  want  the  money,  and  be  honest  with  the  man  who  holds 
about  the  most  responsible  position  in  our  modern  life.  A 
bank  failure  can  wreck  things  in  general  quicker  than  any- 
thing else  short  of  a  cyclone  or  earthquake. 

Like  to  Like.  —  The  relation  between  the  contractor  and  his 
subordinate  tradesmen  and  dealers  are  not  nearly  so  formal 
and  hidebound  as  those  between  him  and  the  architect,  the 
superintendent,  or  the  owner.  They  are  all  birds  of  a  feather 
in  this  combination. 

Uusually  there  are  no  contracts  between  the  lumbermen, 
millmen,  and  other  dealers,  and  the  general  contractor.  The 
figures,  often  verbally  given,  are  held  to  be  sufficient  for  him. 


CHAPTER  IV 

RELATIONS  BETWEEN  THE  CONTRACTOR  AND 
HIS  WORKMEN 

Courtesy.  —  The  Chicago  merchant  alluded  to  in  the  last 
chapter  says,  with  respect  to  the  handling  of  men,  that  we 
hear  so  much  about,  "  I  treat  all  my  employees  with  respect. 
I  believe  in  hiring  good  help  and  paying  good  salaries.  As 
I  walk  through  the  different  departments  in  my  store  my 
employees  do  not  have  to  feel  that  they  must  brace  up  because 
the  boss  is  coming  around.  They  would  far  rather  have  me 
at  home  than  abroad.  I  tell  every  man  at  the  head  of  a 
department,  '  Be  kind  to  the  help  under  you.  Do  not  speak 
to  them  in  any  other  way  than  I  speak  to  you.  Handle  your 
help  so  that  they  will  respect  you,  and  so  that  they  will 
regret  your  leaving  my  employ.'  " 

Captain  "  Bill "  Jones  was  Carnegie's  best  superintendent, 
and  had  thousands  of  men  under  him.  With  his  experience 
for  a  guide,  he  said,  "  All  haughty  and  disdainful  treatment 

of  men  has  a  bad  effect  upon  them "  since  they  are  men 

and  not  dogs,  presumably. 

One  railroad  man,  whose  books  are  known  all  over  the 
world,  said  that  there  is  one  true  test  by  which  you  can  tell 
a  gentleman,  and  that  is  the  way  he  treats  those  under  him. 

Now  all  this  seems  to  be  so  reasonable  that  it  would  not 
be  necessary  to  add  more  but  for  the  fact  that  another  method 
of  treatment  is  getting  to  be  somewhat  too  popular.  It  is 
the  domineering  kind,  ending  in  strikes,  quarreling,  and 
general  disorganization  which,  in  the  long  run,  is  rather 
severe  on  the  pocketbook. 

The  Other  Way.  —  For  example,  one  writer  says  about 
handling  men  in  engineering  and  building  work,  "  It  requires 
the  same  severity  of  discipline,  the  same  show  of  harsh  ex- 
terior, the  same  proneness  to  find  fault  rather  than  praise, 
in  order  to  spur  every  man  to  action,  as  it  does  to  spur  the 
laborers  under  them  to  action." 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       27 

1  do  not  believe  tMs  tyrannical  course  is  necessary.  A  dis- 
gusting, discouraging  fault-finding  should  be  looked  upon 
rather  as  an  evidence  of  weakness  and  incompetency  in  the 
man  at  the  end  of  the  whiplet.  Too  many  men  have  suc- 
ceeded, in  all  lines  and  scales  of  business,  the  other  way  to 
make  any  doubt  possible  on  this  point. 

Waste.  —  What  is  the  object  of  all  this  slave-driving  policy, 
this  ferocity  of  production?  More  wealth  added  to  the  public 
pile?  Yet  the  incompetent  management  of  industry  is  such 
now  that  in  a  single  average  year  there  are  unnecessary  fires 
enough  to  destroy  one-third  of  all  we  build,  when  the  other 
consequent  totals  of  waste  are  added  to  the  fire  loss  proper. 
The  severity,  and  harsh  exteriors,  and  fault-finding  are  not 
required  so  much  for  workingmen  to-day  as  for  so-called 
"  business  men,"  who  are  responsible  for  this  delirium  of 
waste. 

This  fire  bill  is  only  one  item  of  our  national  waste  that  is 
so  great  that  some  able  men  say  that  one-half  of  our  effort 
might  as  well  be  considered  lost.  What  is  the  use  of  pro- 
ducing more  merely  to  destroy  it?  Yet  we  have  the  Legree 
type  who  seem  to  think  that  the  whip  is  the  only  weapon 
that  keeps  a  manual  worker  at  his  task.  No  wonder  there 
are  strikes  all  over  the  land. 

Manhood.  —  One  of  the  first  things  that  all  should  under- 
stand is  that  the  American  republic  is  founded  upon  the  theory 
that  men  are  capable  of  governing  themselves.  This  was  a 
startling  departure  from  the  old  system  which,  in  many  Euro- 
pean countries,  classified  them  as  subjects  fit  only  to  be  gov- 
erned from  above.  There  are  some  who  sneer  at  this  idea  in 
the  business  world,  but  even  in  their  pride  of  place  they  should 
remember  that  the  republic  they  live  in  is  founded  upon  pre- 
cisely this  theory — that  the  common  man  is  better  fitted,  taken 
all  in  all,  for  running  this  government  than  the  trained  states- 
men of  the  old  style  who  used  their  power  generally  for 
their  own  selfish  advantage. 

A  Contrast.  —  Having  quoted  what  might  be  called  the 
American  system  as  set  forth  by  the  Chicago  merchant,  it  is 
but  right  that  we  should  go  to  this  same  city  for  what, 
according  to  temperament,  might  be  called  poison  or  antidote. 
This  is  a  fight  thousands  of  years  old,  and  not  a  mere 
temporary  local  question.  As  such  it  is  worth  some  attention. 


28       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

To  set  the  other  view  in  contrast  some  extracts  from  a 
Chicago  publication  are  here  given: 

"  The  majority  of  common  laborers  are  like  overgrown 
babies.  .  .  .  Minor  cases  of  injustice  may  occur,  but  it  is  a 
free  country.  Aggrieved  men  have  always  the  privilege  of 
quitting." 

Yet  the  republic  itself  must  be  governed  by  the  "  overgrown 
babies."  It  is  not  free  as  yet,  in  many  ways,  and  an  arrogant 
invitation  to  anyone  to  quit  will  not  have  a  tendency  to 
improve  either  man  or  country. 

"  A  first-class  foreman  is  generally  '  Mr.'  to  his  men.  The 
feeling  of  the  men  may  be  one  of  respect,  but  it  is  certainly 
not  love.  .  .  .  Good  foremen  are  as  scarce  as  hens'  teeth, 
and  it  is  unfortunate  that  the  majority  come  from  walks  of 
life  that  forbid  any  intimacy  or  great  show  of  friendliness 
on  the  part  of  their  employer.  Few  of  them  are  strong- 
headed  enough  to  stand  it.  It  is  a  fact  that  a  foreman  is 
seldom  worth  his  salt  after  the  second  job.  ...  A  foreman 
should  be  spoken  to  only  twice  if  he  is  not  giving  satisfaction. 
The  second  reproof  to  be  in  the  form  of  an  invitation  to 
'  come  to  the  office.'  " 

Now,  the  "  name "  business  does  not  seem  to  cut  much 
figure  in  some  cases.  "  Bill "  Jones  got  results  and  also 
"  Charlie "  Schwab.  Yet  many  a  "  Mr."  is  an  expensive 
luxury.  He  is  so  impressed  with  a  sense  of  his  own  im- 
portance that  he  is  not  good  for  much  else  than  strutting. 
After  a  long  experience  in  building  I  am  forced  to  admit  that 
the  "  front "  name  is  more  popular  than  the  frilled  one,  yet 
the  masonry  and  woodwork  go  into  place  quicker  than  they 
do  on  not  a  few  structures  where  all  the  formalities  are 
observed  in  a  style  that  would  delight  Alphonse  Gaston, 
Esquire. 

The  personal,  friendly  element  does  count  for  quite  a  good 
deal,  and  while  a  man  may  keep  up  on  a  pedestal  and  aloof 
from  those  under  him  if  he  chooses,  that  is  not  a  sign  of 
pre-eminent  ability,  but  often  of  mere  snobbery  and  educated 
ignorance.  Abraham  Lincoln  did  not  fear  contact  with  ordi- 
nary mortals. 

Two  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  managers,  Mr.  Schwab  and  Mr. 
Corey,  illustrated,  according  to  a  magazine  writer,  the  two 
different  systems.  Mr.  Schwab  was  magnetic,  and  much  of 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       29 

his  success  was  owing  to  his  personal  acquaintance  with  the 
men  whom  he  knew  as  Tom  or  Jim,  as  the  case  might  be, 
and  who — dreadful  thought! — spoke  of  him  as  "Charlie." 
Mr.  Corey  followed  the  other  method  of  close  analysis  of 
costs,  and  men  were  to  him  No.  124,  or  2546.  Each  was 
successful,  but  which  represented  the  highest  ideal  in  a 
republic?  Does  it  need  Mr.  Carlyle  to  tell  you  once  more 
that  the  civilization  never  yet  endured  which  was  based  on 
the  idea  of  so  much  money  on  Saturday  night,  and  hand- 
washing  afterwards? 

The  old  European  idea  was  that  statesmen  were  hard  to 
find,  but  the  American  republic  provided  millions  of  them. 
The  old  idea  is  that  foremen  are  hard  to  find  also,  but  this 
is  only  one  more  decaying  superstition. 

Which.  —  You  have  now  been  given  the  two  theories  of 
"handling  men,"  and  this,  in  the  often  quoted  phrase,  being 
a  free  country,  you  can  choose  whichever  you  like  best. 
The  severe  one  is  apt  to  have  more  strikes  in  its  train,  and 
to  cost  more  money.  After  all,  men  are  human,  and  cannot 
be  dealt  with  like  commodities. 

Engineer  Folly.  —  Somehow  or  other,  an  unusually  large 
proportion  of  engineers  proceed  on  the  domineering  plan. 
Perhaps  it  is  because  of  handling  so  many  men  on  earthwork, 
sewers,  railroads,  and  such  heavy  undertakings  that  they  take 
the  Asiatic  instead  of  the  American  view  of  industry.  Of 
late  years  southern  Europe  and  Japan  have  sent  us  shiploads 
of  what  some  call  undesirable  citizens,  and  it  may  be  that  the 
tripod  men  have  come  to  believe  that  all  manual  workers  are 
of  the  same  caste;  but  most  of  what  they  hold  as  to  the 
value  of  harsh  treatment  will  never  succeed  with  American 
tradesmen  on  buildings. 

Day's  Work.  —  It  should  be  understood  that  this  better 
method  of  treatment  does  not  mean  that  men  should  be 
allowed  to  loaf  and  neglect  their  work.  I  do  not  believe 
in  that  kind  of  friendliness.  I  compiled  "The  New  Building 
Estimator "  for  the  express  purpose  of  keeping  track  of 
the  amount  of  work  a  man  should  do  in  a  day  on  a 
building.  All  that  is  meant  is  that  a  good  day's  work 
may  be  had  from  a  man  even  if  you  treat  him  as  a  fellow 
"human,"  and  not  so  much  in  the  No.  X — 546,  Shelf  24 
style. 


30       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Wages.  —  In  several  cities  there  have  been  strong  objections 
made  to  the  payment  of  wages  in  checks  by  tradesmen,  in 
the  first  place,  and  also  by  others  not  directly  affected.  The 
Chicago  Federation  of  Labor  has  asked  for  payment  in  money, 
and  so  have  many  other  bodies. 

In  many  ways  this  is  the  easiest  method  for  the  contractor, 
and  also  the  safest,  in  that  it  gives  him  a  record  of  payment 
to  each  man,  in  addition  to  whatever  other  entries  he  may 
have  in  his  books.  He  gets  his  own  payment  in  checks, 
and  he  is  but  giving  to  his  men  what  he  gets  on  a  larger 
scale  from  the  owner.  This  seems  fair  enough — but  he  can 
bank  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and  on  any  day  of  the  week. 

The  trouble  comes  for  a  workman  when  he  tries  to  get  his 
check  cashed.  All  merchants  do  not  care  to  take  them,  and 
cannot  afford  to  keep  cash  enough  on  hand  to  do  so,  as  there 
are  still  a  few  burglars  in  the  land,  and  the  bank  balance 
may  be  low.  The  banks,  even  if  open  on  a  Saturday  afternoon, 
are  probably  distant  from  the  building.  Savings  banks  take 
care  of  this  trade  by  usually  keeping  open  when  the  other 
banks  are  closed,  but  when  a  man  is  working  on  the  outskirts 
of  a  city  he  does  not  feel  like  using  up  part  of  the  only 
afternoon  in  the  week  he  has  for  himself,  and  he  becomes 
dissatisfied  with  the  arrangement. 

The  best  way  seems  to  be  payment  on  the  job  in  cash.  The 
unions  have  properly  settled  the  place  of  payment  as  the 
building  upon  which  the  men  are  working,  but  still  accept 
checks. 

Robbery.  —  Of  course,  there  is  the  danger  that  a  contractor 
may  be  robbed  of  his  cash  between  the  bank  and  the  buildings. 
There  is  an  insurance  company  which  sells  insurance  against 
this  danger,  but  by  the  time  a  contractor  insures  everything, 
it  costs,  in  the  phrase  of  some  of  them,  "  like  the  Sam  Hill." 
With  man}*"  of  them  thie  profits  are  not  any  too  great  as  it  is. 

Saloons.  —  The  saloon  men  are  always  ready  to  cash  checks 
in  their  headquarters.  This  is  one  reason  why  so  many 
object  to  such  system  of  payment.  They  very  properly  do 
not  want  to  go  near  saloons,  and  still  less  buy  the  goods, 
which  is,  of  course,  expected  when  the  checks  are  cashed. 
Employers  might  easily  arrange  this  matter.  Some  of  them 
pay  cash  in  the  saloon  itself.  It  is  a  good  way  for  a  con- 
tractor to  advertise  his  own  cheapness.  Liquor  is  frowned 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       31 

upon  by  too  many  railroads  and  large  corporations  in  this 
electric  age  to  make  it  safe  to  tamper  with,  unless  a  man 
is  catering  to  the  saloon  and  brewery  trade,  and  wants  to 
put  up  their  buildings. 

Weekly  Pay-day.  —  In  cities  this  is  firmly  established,  but 
in  some  country  districts  payment  is  made  only  once  in  two 
weeks.  The  weekly  'pay-day  is  better  in  the  building  trades 
whatever  it  may  be  in  some  others. 

If  a  subcontractor,  for  example,  objects  to  a  general  con- 
tractor keeping  back  his  share  of  the  estimate,  and  thus 
doing  business  on  money  not  his  own,  the  same  man  should 
see  that  if  he  keeps  back  the  whole  pay-roll  more  than  a  week, 
he  also  is  working  with  money  that  belongs  to  others. 

Large  corporations  pay  their  employees  only  once  a  month, 
and  the  arrangement  is  suitable  enough,  but  when  they 
employ  building  tradesmen  they  usually  have  to  follow  the 
weekly  custom. 

Profit  Sharing.  —  There  are  some  manufactories  which  carry 
out  a  system  of  profit  sharing  with  good  effect,  but  it  does 
not  have  much  of  a  foothold  in  the  building  trades.  Men 
change  too  frequently  from  one  employer  to  another  to  make 
it  work. 

It  is  rather  an  interesting  fact,  however,  that  Leclaire,  the 
founder  of  the  profit  sharing  system,  was  a  house  painter.  He 
made  it  work  well.  Possibly  not  by  "  firing "  men  so  much 
for  a  slight  fault  as  by  handling  them  in  the  better  way 
that  makes  firing  often  unnecessary. 

Waste.  —  There  are  men  who  never  seem  to  care  whether 
they  use  the  right  kind  of  material  or  not.  If  they  want  a 
small  stone  they  cut  a  large  one  to  suit;  and  a  long  timber 
is  easily  made  a  shorter  one.  They  should  be  watched. 


CHAPTER  V 
BEADING  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

"  Let  a  man  learn  as  early  as  possible  honestly  to  confess 
his  ignorance,  and  he  will  be  a  gainer  by  it  in  the  long  run; 
otherwise  the  trick  by  which  he  veils  it  from  others  may 
become  a  habit  by  which  he  conceals  it  from  himself." — On 
Self-Culture. 

By  Doing.  — "  Reading  and  writing  come  by  nature,"  was 
the  saying  of  the  man  m  the  play  who  did  not  know  how  to  do 
either.  They  do  no£  come  in  this  way,  as  our  teeth  do, 
but  they  can  be  learned.  There  are  various  ways  of  learning 
them. 

An  American  statesman  told  his  countrymen,  with  respect 
to  the  resumption  of  specie  payments,  that  the  way  to  resume 
was  just  to  resume.  So  we  might  say  that  the  way  to  read 
plans  is  just  to  read  them.  When  this  is  sufficient,  why 
read  page  after  page  of  instructions?  I  found  the  method 
to  work  in  my  case — why  not  in  yours? 

If  you  want  to  learn  to  swim,  do  you  stay  in  your  room 
and  read  books  about  this  art  which  "  once  learned  is  never 
forgotten  ? "  No ;  you  go  into  the  wrater  and  strike  out  for 
yourself,  less  gracefully  than  an  ordinary  everyday,  vulgar 
little  frog,  it  is  true,  or  a  dog,  a  horse,  or  even  a  cat,  but 
nevertheless  you  DO  strike  out,  and  in  time  you  come  to 
trust  the  water  and  yourself. 

Stickability.  —  We  hear  a  good  deal  about  ability,  and  we 
should  like  to  possess  it,  but  not  so  much  about  stickability, 
which  we  may  all  have  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

Once  about  thirty  of  us  were  gathered  in  a  class  to  learn 
shorthand,  less  well  known  before  the  age  of  the  typewriter 
than  now.  We  listened  to  a  plain,  straight-from-the-shoulder 
talk  from  an  enthusiastic  teacher.  He  gave  us  a  message  of 
encouragement,  which  is  about  the  only  kind  that  is  worth 
anything  at  all  for  those  who  are  trying  to  learn,  and  far 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       33 

ahead  of  severity  and  harshness.  He  said  that  there  were 
three  styles  taught,  and  his  plan  was  to  plunge  his  students 
into  the  reporting  or  highest  style  and  be  done  with  it.  As 
the  greater  always  included  the  less,  so  this  style  carried  with 
it  a  knowledge  of  the  baby  versions. 

This  made  us  swell  our  chests  and  feel  like  writing  a  hun- 
dred words  a  minute  before  we  had  seen  the  first  stroke. 
If  only  two  of  us  ever  kept  up  our  studies  long  enough  to 
make  a  workable  success  of  the  art,  it  was  not  the  want  of 
ability  on  the  part  of  the  others,  but  of  stickability  alone. 
It  is  pleasant  and  easy  to  write  this  book  by  the  system 
I  learned  as  a  boy. 

Attacking  Plans.  —  So  with  respect  to  reading  plans  and 
specifications,  all  I  have  to  give  to  any  novice  is  a  message 
of  encouragement,  and  to  tell  him  not  to  be  afraid  of  actual 
plans  which  are  as  easily  read  as  any  baby  versions  of  them 
are,  all  coupled  with  the  advice  to  cultivate  stickability,  and 
not  be  afraid  to  show  ignorance  by  asking  questions.  An 
architect  or  builder  of  any  account  will  be  glad  to  explain 
difficulties.  If  he  refuses,  the  reflection  is  on  his  character 
and  not  on  that  of  the  inquirer. 

Li  Hung  Chang  was  a  famous  statesman  as  far  back  as  the 
time  when  General  Grant  visited  China;  and  later  on  when 
he  came  to  this  country  and  saw  Grant's  tomb  he  distin- 
guished himself  chiefly  by  asking  questions. 

It  is  a  sure  way  to  gain  information  of  some  kind,  and  that 
is  something  we  all  need,  for  if  Mr.  Edison,  the  famous 
electrician  and  poured-cement  house  man  can  say  that,  accord- 
ing to  his  opinion,  we  really  know  just  about  one-billionth 
part  of  one  per  cent,  about  anything,  then  ordinary  people 
need  not  be  ashamed  to  ask  the  better  informed  for  enlight- 
enment. If  the  first  question  does  not  bring  the  desired  in- 
formation, succeeding  ones  will,  for  in  desperation  the  busiest 
man  will  either  "  fire "  you  or  answer  to  get  rid  of  an 
interrogation  point. 

Breaking  Rules.  — "  How  are  you  going  to  find  out  what 
the  rules  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  ? "  asked  a  follower  of 
Mr.  Parnell  wrhen  the  latter  was  engaged  in  his  stormy  work. 
"  By  breaking  them,"  was  the  answer.  That  is  also  a  certain 
way  of  finding  out  an  architect's  rules. 

Among  the  first  plans  I  worked  from,  there  was  Tr  shown 


34       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

after  all  the  door  sizes  on  the  second  floor  plan.  I  did  not 
know  then  that  this  meant  Transom;  and  the  partitions  were 
finished  and  plastered  before  the  error  was  discovered.  I 
broke  the  rules,  was  shown  my  mistake,  and  paid  for  it  by 
getting  my  hair  and  lungs  filled  with  plaster  and  plaster  dust 
in  making  things  right.  It  is  a  sure  method,  but  sometimes 
an  expensive  and  inconvenient  one.  After  that  I  always 
watched  carefully  for  Tr.  It  was  to  me  more  important  than 
the  Mr.  alluded  to  in  the  last  chapter.  Plaster  dust  is 
disagreeable. 

Anyone.  —  There  is  no  carpenter,  bricklayer,  plasterer, 
plumber,  teamster,  or  man  with  the  hoe  who  may  not,  if  he 
pleases,  learn  to  read  plans  as  easily  as  he  reads  a  newspaper 
or  this  book.  The  creation  of  plan  readers  may  be  difficult 
in  Asia,  under  the  old  beliefs,  but  not  in  the  United  States 
now.  There  is  nothing  mysterious  about  the  work,  and  there 
is  no  sense  in  trying  to  make  it  appear  so.  It  is  a  message 
of  encouragement  that  this  chapter  brings,  an  order  to  attack 
what  might  be  termed  the  "  reporting  style "  of  the  plan 
business  by  reading  all  the  actual  plans  one  comes  across 
and  scores  of  others  in  the  trade  papers,  until  the  work 
becomes  as  easy  as  laying  brick  or  driving  a  nail.  One  of  the 
best  ways  also  is  to  make  plans  oneself,  no  matter  how  rough 
they  are  at  first.  The  REASONS  for  the  RULES  unfold  them- 
selves as  the  work  proceeds. 

Advantage.  —  It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that  tradesmen, 
in  general,  have  a  clear  advantage  over  draftsmen.  There 
are  many  of  them  so  unacquainted  with  the  manner  of  putting 
a  building  together  that  they  work  half  by  guess  and  half 
by  knowledge.  The  tradesman  does  the  actual  work  and 
knows  why  such  and  such  details  are  used,  and  why  the 
construction  has  to  follow  certain  lines. 

Trade  Papers.  —  One  of  the  best  ways  of  learning  how  to 
read  plans  is  to  take  a  good  trade  paper.  Almost  every 
number  of  some  of  them  contains  house  plans,  elevations, 
sections,  and  details,  and  by  careful  and  constant  study,  any 
tradesman  can  master  plan  reading  in  this  way  quicker  than 
he  can  by  taking  time  to  go  through  long-winded  instructions 
about  something  that,  with  practice,  is  as  easy  as  reading 
ordinary  print.  As  with  everything  else,  practice  is  necessary 
until  a  workable  perfection  has  been  attained,  and  once  this 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       35 

point  is  reached,  the  art  of  plan  reading  stays  with  its 
owner. 

Of  course  a  contractor  pays  men  to  do  a  certain  amount 
of  work,  and  cannot  afford  to  have  them  pass  their  time  read- 
ing plans  in  working  hours,  but  the  trade  papers  give  every 
opportunity  for  exercising  in  this  art  in  the  evenings.  The 
man  who  understands  plans  is  undoubtedly  of  more  value  to 
a  contractor  than  the  one  who  does  not. 

A  Few  Hints.  —  The  plan  gives  the  size  of  rooms,  the  thick- 
ness of  walls,  and  shows  if  they  are  solid  or  hollow  on  a 
masonry  building,  indicates  the  position  of  the  chimneys, 
ordinary  openings,  sliding-doors,  and  French  windows;  shows 
the  distance  and  size  of  piers,  and  marks  with  dots  what  is 
either  above  or  below  the  floor  line,  as  girders  below,  and 
brackets  or  overhanging  cornice  above,  when  necessary  to 
show  this.  This  dotted  work  in  the  case  of  beamed  ceilings 
may  be  very  expensive,  and  has  to  be  watched. 

Stairs  that  meet  on  the  plan  are  broken  off,  and  an  arrow 
used  to  show  which  goes  up  and  which  down,  and  as  there 
are  a  few  architects  who  do  not  know  how  many  risers  it 
takes  to  give  headroom,  a  contractor  has  to  watch  the  stair 
arrangement,  for  changes  that  cost  money,  are  sometimes 
necessary  on  this  account. 

Soil-pipes  are  dotted  in  below  the  basement  floor,  and 
drains  from  the  downspout  to  the  street  or  cistern.  It  is 
important  that  the  contractor  should  see  how  deep  these  have 
to  be. 

Roofs.  —  The  roof  plan  is  sometimes  given  on  ordinary 
houses,  and  must  be  in  large  ones.  A  common  method  is  to 
dot  it  in  on  the  second  floor  or  attic  plan. 

Elevations.  —  The  elevations  give  a  picture  of  the  building 
based  on  the  supposition  that  the  eye  is  always  on  a  level 
with  every  part  shown.  It  is  thus  different  from  a  per- 
spective, which  should  be  the  same  as  a  photograph.  There 
are  often  not  more  than  two  elevations  given. 

Sections.  —  In  order  to  understand  these  drawings  it  is 
necessary  to  see  on  what  line  the  section  is  taken  on  the  plan. 
All  heights  of  stories,  window-sills,  spacing  of  joists,  bridging, 
thickness  of  walls,  position  of  girders,  and  everything  that 
can  be  seen  by  supposing  a  great  knife  to  be  slashed  down 
through  the  house  as  through  a  cheese  from  ridge  to  the 


36       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

footings  is  shown.  The  sectional  drawings  often  require 
more  attention  than  either  the  elevations  or  plans,  which 
are  usually  self-explaining. 

Details.  —  These  drawings  are  so  much  larger  than  the 
others  that  their  meaning  can  scarcely  be  misinterpreted. 
In  some  cases,  as  for  stonework  or  millwork,  they  are  made 
full  size. 

Scales.  —  I  worked  for  several  years  making  plans  for 
buildings  mostly  on  a  scale  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  the 
foot;  and  some  of  one-sixteenth  on  account  of  size*.  It  would 
have  been  impossible  to  use  a  scale  of  one-quarter  inch,  for 
this  would  have  made  a  sheet  in  some  cases  ten  feet  long, 
and  it  was  considered  best  not  to  break  the  drawings.  But 
for  buildings  of  ordinary  size  a  scale  of  one-quarter  inch 
should  be  used.  It  is  unfair  to  contractors  to  make  them 
puzzle  over  hair  lines  on  an  eighth  scale  if  one  twice  the 
size  can  be  used. 

Specifications.  —  The  old  proverb  says  that  familiarity 
breeds  contempt,  but  it  is  not  wise  for  a  contractor  to  become 
so  familiar  with  specifications  that  he  neglects  to  read  them 
carefully.  After  I  had  read  so  many  that  the  sight  of  one 
was  wearying  to  the  eyes,  I  once  overlooked  a  few  words  as 
to  the  quality  of  flooring  in  a  six-story  building,  and  the 
bill  came  to  about  $150.  The  plan  deals  with  sizes,  but  the 
specification  tells  of  quality.  So  far  as  the  plan  is  concerned 
one  does  not  usually  find  out  if  the  inside  finish  is  to  be 
yellow  pine  or  mahogany.  A  single  sentence  may  make  a 
difference  of  $1,000.  Therefore,  do  not  neglect  to  read  all 
that  your  friend,  the  architect,  says  to  you. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  PREPARATION  OF  ESTIMATES 

Architect's  Scale.  —  Before  taking  off  any  quantities  from 
the  plan  every  contractor  should  get  what  few  of  them  have — 
an  architect's  scale.  This  is  a  better  instrument  for  the 
work  than  a  two-foot  rule.  The  figures  are  all  marked,  ready 
for  use,  and  there  is  no  necessity  for  multiplying  111/4x4 
to  find  that  the  total  is  45  ft.  on  a  quarter-inch  scale. 

A  plain  boxwood  scale  costs  about  90  cents  at  an  ordinary 
store,  but  the  mail  order  houses  charge  only  about  half  that 
amount.  The  ones  with  celluloid  edges  may  be  bought  for 
$1.50  up.  They  are  worth  the  extra  money.  The  flat  ones 
are  serviceable  enough,  but  the  triangular  style  has  more 
scales.  There  is  the  natural  scale,  divided  into  sixteenths; 
s\  and  TV,  i/8  and  % ;  %  and  % ;  i/2  and  1;  lya  and  3-in. 
to  the  foot. 

Method.  —  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  better  to  take  off  all 
the  items  on  a  plan  before  figuring  up  the  cost.  The  desk 
or  table  can  then  be  cleared  off  and  room  secured  for  mi  11  books 
and  catalogs. 

EXCA.VATION 

On  the  supposition  that  a  contractor  is  going  to  estimate 
all  the  work  himself,  the  proper  place  to  begin  is  with  clearing 
off  the  lot,  and  the  excavation.  Old  buildings  may  have  to 
be  removed,  or  trees  cut  down  before  the  spade  goes  in  the 
earth.  Each  job  has  to  be  considered  by  itself. 

Sizes.  —  The  size  of  the  main  part  of  the  building  is  taken 
over  the  footings  shown  on  the  section,  and  not  merely  over 
the  basement  walls,  and  about  a  foot  more  added  each  way 
to  give  room  for  laying  brick  or  putting  in  concrete.  This 
method  is  continued  over  each  part  of  the  building,  and 
after  the  areas  have  been  added,  the  whole  sum  is  multiplied 

37 


38       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

by  the  depth  and  divided  by  27  to  get  the  number  of  cubic 
yards.  The  total  is  then  multiplied  by  the  unit  price,  \vhich 
may  be  15  cents  or  ten  times  as  much,  depending  upon  con- 
ditions. 

Even  the  exact  sizes  cannot  be  always  relied  on.  I  have 
often  seen  banks  cave  in,  and  add  twenty-five  per  cent,  to  the 
total. 

Mud.  —  Then  water  may  arise,  and  there  is  a  mud  puddle 
to  contend  with.  The  measurement  may  be  taken  off  accu- 
rately enough,  but  falling  banks  and  mud  may  add  fifty  per 
cent,  to  such  work  as  heavy  piers.  Sheet  piling  has  often 
to  be  used  to  keep  the  earth  back. 

Rock.  —  But  instead  of  mud  there  may  be  rock  to  blast" 
out.  This  shows  how  much  the  character  of  the  soil  has 
to  do  with  excavation,  and  how  exact  sizes  may  have  to  be 
largely  increased  in  soft  soil. 

Levels.  —  Another  trouble  is  with  the  depth.  In  a  prairie 
country  the  lots  are  usually  level,  but  sometimes  in  all  cities 
there  are  lots  whose  surface  is  very  irregular.  An  architect 
occasionally  gives  the  levels  at  selected  stations,  and  the 
contractor  can  figure  from  them  with  more  safety  than  by 
guessing  for  himself. 

Extras.  —  The  extra  depth  required  for  footings,  boilers, 
furnaces,  chimneys,  outside  stairs,  window  areas,  cisterns, 
cesspools,  must  be  estimated  separately. 

Thermometer.  —  There  is  a  danger  from  the  weather  in 
excavation.  A  rainstorm  may  cause  the  contractor  a  heavy 
loss;  and  if  the  work  has  to  be  done  in  winter,  and  the 
ground  is  frozen,  only  about  half  a  day's  work  is  obtainable 
from  the  men. 

Sheet  Piling.  —  At  the  time  of  making  the  estimate  it 
should  be  noted  whether  sheet  piling  is  likely  to  be  required, 
or  pumping;  and  the  length  of  the  haul  should  be  taken  into 
account,  or  anything  out  of  the  ordinary  run  of  digging  a 
hole  in  the  ground  and  throwing  the  material  on  the  bank. 

Guessing.  —  As  an  encouragement  to  inexperienced  exca- 
vators I  may  state  that  I  once  saw  bids  from  half  a  dozen 
old  contractors  on  a  large  amount  of  work,  and  they  ran  all 
the  way  from  30  cents  per  cubic  yard  to  $1. 

Flushing.  —  With  plenty  of  fall  and  permission  from  the 
authorities  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  flush  out  excavation 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       39 

into  the  sewers  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  by  the  ordinary  way 
of  working. 

PILING 

If  piles  are  used  the  number  may  be  easily  counted,  and 
the  borings  given  by  the  architect  or  the  engineer  determine 
the  length.  For  some  years  I  spaced  enough  to  hold  up  an 
average  city. 

A  man  from  Amsterdam  once  astonished  his  hearers  by 
saying  that  he  came  from  a  city  that  was  built  on  the  tops 
of  trees.  Trees  are  falling  into  disfavor  for  this  purpose 
now.  if  we  are  to  believe  the  fire-proof  men  who  fight  against 
wood  piles  and  the  grillage  that  is  often  spread  on  top. 
They  prefer  concrete  all  through.  Their  objection  is  to  splin- 
tering of  the  head  and  shrinkage  of  the  timbers,  but  if  good 
piles  are  used  and  carefully  driven,  the  heads  are  preserved 
intact,  and  the  grillage  cannot  shrink  much  if  below  water, 
where  it  ought  to  be  to  keep  it  from  rotting. 

A  contractor's  business,  however,  is  to  count  his  piles,  to 
see  what  kind  of  wood  they  are  to  be,  and  to  what  depth 
they  are  to  go,  not  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  from 
the  wrater  level.  If  grillage  is  used  it  can  be  easily  seen 
and  the  quantities  taken  off. 

Concrete  Piles  have  an  advantage  in  that  they  do  not 
require  to  have  the  heads  below  water  level,  but  may  come 
clear  to  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Lengths  must  be  figured 
to  suit  each  case. 

SEPARATE    ITEMS 

Excavation,  plastering,  painting,  or  anything  else  after 
being  figured  up  should  be  double  lined  at  the  end.  and  not 
carried  forward  into  any  other  item.  That  is.  the  totals 
should  not  be  carried  from  page  to  page  in  an  estimate  book, 
but  each  item  should  be  left  by  itself  to  be  added  at  the  end 
to  the  summary.  It  is  best  to  make  estimates  in  a  book, 
preferably  a  loose-leafed  one.  They  are  handy  to  refer  to. 

CONCKETE   FOOTINGS 

Next  after  excavation  and  piling,  if  used,  come  the  foot- 
ings. If  they  are  of  concrete  the  exact  cubic  contents  are 


40       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

taken  and  expressed  in  cubic  feet  or  yards,  as  the  local 
custom  decides. 

Measurement.  —  The  system  of  measurement  all  through 
"  The  New  Building  Estimator  "  is  based  on  actual  quantities 
without  doubling  corners  and  such  extras.  I  know  of  a  case 
where  a  long  dispute  went  on  over  large  concrete  work  on 
this  question.  The  contractor,  of  course,  wanted  every  corner 
doubled.  An  understanding  should  be  had  on  this  point  be- 
fore going  ahead. 

Perch.  —  Do  not  use  it  for  any  work.  Let  it  die.  It  has 
made  too  much  trouble.  In  some  parts  it  means  16%  cubic 
feet,  in  others  22%  and  24%  or  25  are  also  used.  There  is  too 
much  chance  of  misunderstanding.  The  contractor  who  is 
used  to  allowing  16%  may  put  in  a  bid  on  that  basis,  calling 
it  a  "  perch,"  and  find  that  the  state  law  or  custom  where 
he  is  figuring  away  from  his  home  may  compel  him  to  give 
25.  A  cubic  yard  or  foot  is  always  safe.  It  would  really 
be  better  if  we  could  all  get  accustomed  to  use  cubic  feet, 
as  they  do  in  Chicago  and  many  other  places,  for  the  work 
of  turning  into  cubic  yards  would  not  then  be  necessary. 

Superstructure.  —  If  the  superstructure  should  happen  to 
be  of  concrete,  reinforced  or  otherwise,  the  actual  cubic  con- 
tents should  be  taken  off  in  the  same  way  as  for  the  base- 
ment, regardless  of  double  corners  and  openings,  and  the 
unit  price  set  to  suit  the  class  of  work.  The  actual  cost  of 
a  million  dollars'  worth  of  buildings  of  this  class  is  given 
in  detail  in  "  The  New  Building  Estimator." 

BRICKWORK 

Measurement.  —  In  this  class  of  masonry  the  same  system 
of  taking  actual  contents  only  is  followed,  and  multiplying 
the  cubic  feet  by  22%  to  get  the  number  of  brick  in  wall 
measure.  The  actual  number  of  brick  required  is  different 
according  to  size. 

This  question  is  gone  into  in  detail  in  my  "  Estimator," 
where  23  pages  are  given  to  brick  alone,  with  allowances 
for  mortar,  mortar  color,  pressed  brick,  chimneys,  cesspools, 
boilers,  and  the  cost  of  labor. 

Extra  Care.  —  With  straight  brickwork  the  measurement 
is  simple,  and  the  laying  goes  forward  without  much  trouble, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       41 

but  with  mantels,  cornices,  corbels,  fancy .  molded  pilasters, 
paneled  work,  and  so  on,  the  estimator  has  to  be  very 
careful.  The  cost  of  the  molded  brick  is  high,  and  the  labor 
may  run  beyond  all  reason  at  the  present  rate  of  bricklayers' 
wages. 

Soft  Brick.  —  It  is  easy  enough  for  an  architect  to  say 
that  no  soft  brick  will  be  allowed  in  his  work,  but  often 
difficult  for  the  contractor  to  get  hard  ones.  I  was  once 
sent  about  eight  hundred  miles  to  examine  a  kiln  of  brick 
held  at  $11  and  worth,  in  an  ordinary  market  $1.74,  for 
hencoop  foundations.  There  were  few  I  could  not  break 
with  my  hands. 

Suppose  a  contractor  can  only  find  this  kind  locally,  and 
has  to  haul  hard  ones  several  hundred  miles? 

Theory.  —  Once  when  I  was  building  a  schoolhouse  a  paper 
came  out  with  headlines  that  were  too  large,  "ROTTEN 
BRICK  IN  A  WALL."  There  were  a  few,  but  they  were  in  the 
center,  where  they  did  the  most  good  and  the  least  harm. 
It  is  not  easy  in  some  sections  where  the  clay  is  poor  to 
get  brick  of  the  right  quality.  After  all,  what  harm  do  a 
few  soft  brick  do  in  the  center  of  a  17-inch  wall?  They  will 
bear  ten  times  the  weight  that  will  ever  go  on  them.  The 
danger  lies  rather  with  the  poor  mortar  used.  If  extra 
good  mortar  is  specified  allowance  should  be  made  in  the 
estimate  for  it. 

STONEWORK 

Rub"ble.  —  This  work  also  should  be  estimated  by  the 
cubic  foot  or  yard,  and  not  by  the  perch  or  cord.  Take  only 
actual  contents,  and  price  accordingly. 

There  need  be  no  trouble  in  measuring  up  the  contents  of 
a  wall  of  a  certain  length,  height,  and  thickness.  It  is 
merely  a  matter  of  applying  the  multiplication  table. 

Heights.  —  The  heights  of  all  stories  in  a  masonry  building 
should  be  taken  from  top  to  top  of  joists,  because  the  walls 
are  often  thinner  on  the  top  stories,  and  the  thick  wall  should 
go  to  the  top  of  the  joists  to  keep  them  in  place,  provide 
better  anchorage,  and  block  fire. 

Ashlar.  —  This  work  is  usually  taken  by  the  square  foot 
instead  of  the  cubic  foot,  and  figured  on  the  average  thickness. 
Some  courses  are  made  thicker  than  others  for  a  bond.  At 


42       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  openings,  the  depth  of  the  reveals  often  make  thicker 
stones  necessary.  The  area  of  an  ashlar  front  is  easily 
enough  figured  up. 

Odd  Work.  —  The  trouble  comes  with  something  else  than 
plain  ashlar.  It  is  the  heavy  entablatures,  the  round  and 
square  columns  with  their  capitals,  the  molded  belt  courses 
and  sills,  the  arcades,  battlements,  buttresses,  and  recessed 
work,  finials,  brackets,  and  everything  of  a  special  nature 
that  has  to  be  watched  and  priced  to  suit  the  style  given 
by  Angelo  Wren,  the  celebrated  architect.  The  safest  way  for 
a  young  estimator,  and  an  old  one  also,  at  times,  is  to  get  a 
bid  from  a  stone  contractor,  or  rather  from  several  who  may 
differ  thirty  per  cent,  from  each  other. 

Sills.  —  Ordinary  door  and  window-sills  are  priced  at  so 
much  per  lineal  foot. 

Flagstones  are  estimated  by  the  square  foot,  according  to 
thickness. 

Washing.  —  In  all  masonry  buildings  washing  down  and 
pointing  has  to  be  included  at  so  much  a  square  foot. 

Floors  and  Walks.  —  These  are  estimated  by  the  square 
yard,  and  can  scarcely  be  missed.  If  the  floors  are  plain, 
the  price  ought  to  be  easily  set,  but  gutters,  ridges,  troughs, 
and  such  work  often  raise  it  to  twice  the  plain  figure. 

ACTUAL  MEASUREMENT 

Why  is  it  better  than  the  old  trade  rule  system?  Let  us 
look  at  the  question. 

Variation.  —  In  the  first  place,  the  trade  rules  are  different 
in  almost  every  state.  Missouri  used  to  have,  and  may  still 
have,  special  laws  enacted  by  the  legislature  as  to  measure- 
ment, and  other  states  may  have  the  same  thing.  Under 
such  laws  the  only  way  is  to  go  ahead,  in  default  of  special 
agreement,  and  follow  them.  This  means  confusion  all  over 
the  country  in  what  should  be  as  simple  as  the  multiplication 
table.  We  are  getting  too  close  together  to  have  so  many 
different  rules.  There  has  long  been  a  fight  to  standardize 
the  bushel  weights  in  various  states,  and  other  measure- 
ments; and  builders  ought  to  fall  in  line  with  their  work. 
In  the  case  of  railroads  running  into  several  states  there  is 
too  much  annoyance  \vith  various  trade  rules,  and  actual 
quantities  only  are  recognized. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       43 

I  know  that  the  system  of  measurement  is  for  special  work 
like  corners,  openings,  angles,  corbels,  and  so  on,  where  extra 
time  is  required.  The  extra  cost  is  put  in  the  measurement 
instead  of  the  price. 

Time.  —  Another  trouble  is  in  the  waste  of  time  in  getting 
the  actual  quantities  required.  When  I  was  estimating  rail- 
road work  there  would  come  special  "  rushes "  when  a  com- 
plete bill  of  material  had  to  be  got  out  on  short  notice.  By 
the  trade  rule  of  estimating  so  much  for  each  opening,  accord- 
ing to  size,  doubling  corners,  allowing  half  the  thickness  of 
one  wall  where  another  runs  into  it  at  right  angles,  taking 
projections,  cornices,  pilasters,  in  such  and  such  a  way,  and 
so  on  to  the  end  of  the  dismal  chapter  of  "  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule  "  that  are  worse  than  those  of  our  old  grammars, 
I  had  to  figure  once  to  get  the  wall  measure,  then  go  over 
the  whole  building  again  to  deduct  the  area  allowed  for 
the  openings,  corners,  and  so  forth,  in  order  to  get  the  actual 
number  of  brick  required,  the  actual  yardage  of  plaster,  for 
the  number  of  lath  and  tons  of  material,  and  I  finally  threw 
up  the  useless  work.  I  have  found  large  brick  contractors 
who  have  done  the  same  thing. 

Contractors  like  this  system  on  account  of  the  possibility  of 
getting  larger  prices  for  extras.  For  the  main  contract  they 
would  just  as  soon  figure  by  taking  actual  quantities  and 
raising  the  price.  The  owner  does  not  understand  nor  approve 
of  this  trade  method. 

Water.  —  The  supply  for  masonry  must  be  attended  to.  If 
a  well  has  to  be  sunk  the  allowance  should  be  made. 

Hauling.  —  The  question  of  hauling  is  often  of  great  im- 
portance. How  far,  what  kind  of  roads,  what  rate  for  teams, 
and  such  matters  must  not  be  neglected.  I  know  of  one 
contractor,  up  to  that  time  successful,  whose  pocketbook  was 
emptied  by  his  having  to  build  a  short  section  of  a  railroad 
to  connect  with  the  main  line.  That  item,  and  too  low 
figuring  on  the  rest  of  the  work,  landed  him  in  the  courts 
and  trouble. 


CARPENTRY 

Direction.  —  It  is  not  always  easy  to  find  out  at  a  glance 
in  which  direction  an  architect  wants  the  joists  and  rafters 


44       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

to  run.     When  there  is  any  chance  of  mistake  it  should  be 
marked  with  an  arrow. 

System.  —  Of  all  the  methods  of  arriving  at  the  cost  of 
carpentry  the  most  accurate,  if  the  slowest,  is  to  take  off 
the  lumber,  and  allow  the  labor  at  so  much  per  thousand 
feet,  board  measure,  or  per  square.  The  square  method 
is  safe  for  old  contractors. 

Framing.  —  All  plain  structural  material  is  easily  seen  and 
taken  off.  The  principal  difficulty  is  with  the  roof,  where 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  good  deal  of  waste  on  cut  up  work.  This 
is  easier  done  by  the  square.  An  easy  system  of  measurement 
is  set  forth  in  my  "  Estimator."  There,  also,  may  be  found 
all  the  allowances  for  extras  required  for  siding,  flooring, 
shingles,  and  other  materials.  It  is  not  necessary  to  reprint 
them  here. 

Slow  Work.  —  On  a  frame  house  it  is  a  tedious  business  to 
take  off  all  the  lumber,  and  after  some  experience,  a  good 
many  contractors  resort  to  the  square  system.  Studs,  sheath- 
ing, paper,  siding,  are  all  figured  up  at  a  certain  rate  for  a 
square,  and  then  the  surface  of  the  building  taken  in  the 
same  way.  So  with  floors  and  roof.  This  ought  to  be  safe, 
for  there  should  be  enough  profit  to  cover  any  little  mistakes; 
but  competition  is  so  strong  in  this  class  of  work  that  the 
lumber  bill  is  usually  taken  off  and  sometimes  figured  down 
to  the  lowest  basis. 

Millwork.  —  The  ordinary  contractor  usually  leaves  mill- 
work  for  the  experts,  but  the  experienced  one  knows  that  they 
sometimes  differ  so  much  that  he  might  just  about  as  well 
risk  making  the  estimate  himself. 

The  difficulty  is  with  special  work  made  to  details,  and 
not  with  the  stock  lists.  Millbooks  are  given  to  contractors, 
and  when  they  know  the  discounts,  there  is  little  trouble 
with  doors,  *sash,  and  ordinary  materials.  The  mail  order 
houses  send  a  millbook  to  anyone.  They  give  net  prices 
without  freight. 

A  full  list  of  prices  to  assist  the  contractor  is  given  in 
"  The  New  Building  Estimator  " ;  and  special  work  attended 
to  as  far  as  it  can  be. 

Hardwood  Floors.  —  So  much  of  this  kind  of  finish  is  now 
done  that  the  contractor  should  be  careful  about  his  figures. 
When  labor  will  run  to  $15  per  square  all  over  a  first  floor, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       45 

the   total   cuts  into  the  allowance  in  the  estimate   in  a  dis- 
couraging way. 

STBUCTUBAL    STEEL    AND    IEON    WORK 

Here,  again,  on  a  job  of  any  size,  the  builder  is  safer 
when  he  gets  a  complete  bid  from  the  iron  contractor.  The 
latter  does  not  usually  include  anchors  and  the  lighter  items. 

Columns  and  Beams.  —  Of  course,  on  plain  columns  and 
beams  anyone  with  a  table  of  weights  can  easily  get  the  cast 
iron,  and  the  weight  of  the  beams  is  marked  per  foot.  If 
the  price  is  known  at  the  point  of  delivery  there  is  no  occa- 
sion to  go  to  the  foundry  for  a  figure. 

When  a  contractor  figures  the  work  himself  he  is  not  tied 
to  anyone,  and  if  he  gets  the  contract  may  look  where  he 
pleases  for  a  cheap  sub-bid. 

PLASTEBING 

This  work,  if  plain,  is  about  as  easily  figured  as  anything 
can  be.  It  is  but  a  question  of  finding  the  number  of  square 
yards.  Even  this  labor  may  be  dispensed  with,  for  in  my 
"  Estimator  "  there  is  a  series  of  tables  with  the  number  of 
yards  all  figured  out  for  several  thousand  different  sizes  of 
rooms,  and  different  heights  from  7-0  to  12-0.  By  using  this 
system  there  is  less  chance  of  mistake  than  with  the  old 
method. 

The  openings  had  to  be  included  in  the  tables,  for  no  two 
rooms  are  the  same,  and  only  straight  walls  and  ceilings 
could  be  figured.  The  price  may  be  arranged  to  suit. 

PAINTING 

After  a  general  contractor  takes  off  the  square  feet  of 
ceiling,  floors,  siding,  roofs,  and  other  large  surfaces  in  a 
building,  he  already  has  a  good  basis  to  work  on  for  a  paint 
estimate.  He  knows  better  than  the  ordinary  painter  where 
to  look  for  the  work.  From  the  beginning  he  should  make 
up  his  mind  to  figure  his  own  plaster,  paint,  and  such  work, 
if  plain,  and  take  the  chance  of  getting  his  figure  cut  by 
the  subcontractor.  It  takes  too  much  time  to  run  around  for 


46       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

figures,  and  sometimes  the  ones  got  by  telephone  are  not 
stood  by.  The  wires  or  something  else  may  be  crossed. 

This  does  not  mean  that  he  should  necessarily  do  his  own 
plastering  and  painting.  That  is  another  question. 

After  a  few  houses  have  been  built  the  paint  estimate  may 
often  be  decided  upon  without  any  figuring. 

HARDWARE 

It  is  rather  a  tedious  matter  to  take  off  hardware  that 
differs  in  every  room  of  a  large,  fine  house.  The  better  plan 
is  for  the  architect  to  specify  a  certain  sum  for  this,  and 
let  the  owner  select  it.  If  this  is  not  done,  and  fine  hardware 
is  specified,  the  safest  way  is  to  make  out  a  list  and  have  it 
figured,  or  get  the  manufacturers'  catalog,  with  a  discount 
sheet.  This  is  not  usually  sent  out  to  any  but  retailers. 

For  ordinary  houses  contractors  can  often  guess  at  the 
right  amount,  or  allow  so  much  per  opening,  after  the  nail 
and  bolt  allowance  is  settled.  Sometimes  the  profit  on  the 
contract  has  to  suffer  a  little  to  make  up  for  any  deficiency, 
but  not  much  on  such  a  small  item. 

RATE  OF  PROFIT 

All  through  this  matter  of  estimating  we  run  against  one 
strange  fact.  It  is,  of  course,  best  to  know  exactly  what 
every  item  costs,  but  it  is  a  little  inconsistent  to  find  trifles 
estimated  down  to  the  last  cent  and  then  a  guess  made  at 
a  profit  ranging  all  the  way  from  five  to  ten  per  cent.  If 
willing  to  gamble  at  such  a  wride  margin  on  the  profit,  why 
not  just  a  little  on  the  hardware  or  painting  to  save  the 
time  and  complete  the  bid? 

NET  COST 

I  prefer  the  system  that  first  gets  at  the  net  cost  all 
through  and  then  adds  the  profit  in  a  lump  sum  at  the  end 
of  the  total  estimate.  Others  put  the  profit  on  each  item 
as  they  go  along. 

ROOFING 

This  branch  is  estimated  by  the  unit  of  a  square  of  100 
square  feet,  or  a  space  equal  to  10  by  10  feet.  Slate,  tile, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       47 

shingles,  and  patent  roofs  of  all  kinds  are  taken  in  this 
way. 

Plumbing.  —  The  usual  practice  is  to  let  plumbing  and 
heating  separate  from  the  main  contract.  If  they  have  to 
be  included,  the  general  contractor  gets  a  bid  from  the  men 
who  handle  these  lines. 

If  he  figures  the  work  himself  and  there  are  long  lines  of 
water  pipe,  he  should  be  careful  about  the  weights  per  foot, 
as  they  vary  considerably.  He  should  also  get  the  local  list  of 
sewer  pipe.  There  is  a  western  and  an  eastern  list. 

Special  Work.  —  Other  necessary  parts  of  a  building  con- 
tract, like  galvanized  iron,  tiling,  and  fire-proofing,  are  usually 
figured  on  by  subcontractors,  and  bids  given  to  the  general 
contractor  for  his  total. 

The  prices  of  such  work  are  given  in  the  "  Estimator,"  and 
labor  costs  as  well,  so  that  anyone  may  make  up  estimates 
for  himself,  subject  to  such  changes  as  his  experience  in  his 
locality  sees  to  be  necessary.  Lumber,  for  example,  is  cheaper 
in  Washington  and  Georgia  than  in  Nebraska  or  Kansas; 
and  slate  is  cheaper  in  the  eastern  states  than  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

Making  up  Bids.  —  Get  the  actual  cost  of  lumber,  concrete, 
plaster,  and  all  factors  of  a  bid,  and  add  as  much  percentage 
for  profit  as  the  local  conditions  will  allow.  It  will  not  be 
too  much  where  there  is  any  competition. 

The  system  we  see  recommended  in  some  engineering  works 
of  putting  down  at  least  4  per  cent,  for  office  expenses,  4  per 
cent,  for  foreman,  and  anywhere  from  15  to  30  for  profit 
cannot  be  followed  for  ordinary  building  work.  At  most, 
10  is  allowed  and  this  has  to  cover  everything.  Many  would 
be  well  pleased  to  do  plain  work  for  6. 

Low  Bids.  —  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  wise  to  go  too 
low.  The  "  plungers  "  often  startle  us  by  making  large  for- 
tunes, but  most  of  them  fail. 

Putting  in  Bids.  —  Hand  in  a  bid  before  the  time  set  for 
the  opening.  Many  hold  theirs  back  till  the  latest  hour, 
and  this  is  sometimes  a  wise  course. 

Subcontractors  should  get  their  bids  in  to  a  general  con- 
tractor in  time  for  him  to  make  up  his  total.  He  is  often 
embarrassed  by  having  to  wait,  and  takes  risks  by  sometimes 
using  a  sub-bid  that  is  not  altogether  clear.  Suppose  the 


48       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

subcontractor  cannot  be  found  by  person  or  telephone,  and 
the  main  bid  has  to  reach  the  architect  in  half  an  hour, 
what  is  to  be  done?  If  the  general  contractor  puts  in  the 
bid  and  the  subcontractor  backs  out,  what  then?  As  will 
be  found  in  another  chapter,  a  bid  is  virtually  a  contract 
as  soon  as  it  is  accepted,  and  the  backing  out  course  can 
only  be  done  with  the  permission  of  the  owner,  who  may  like 
to  see  a  low  bid  from  a  responsible  man.  If  a  subcontractor 
cannot  trust  a  general  contractor  with  a  bid  in  time  for 
the  latter  to  make  up  a  safe  total  and  get  any  explanations 
that  are  necessary,  he  ought  to  refuse  to  have  anything  to  do 
with  him. 

It  is  worse  than  provoking  to  have  a  complete  bid  all  made 
out  and  have  to  wait  to  the  last  minute  for  a  certain  figure. 
All  the  other  careful  work  is  useless  without  that  figure, 
and  the  hour  of  opening  bids  is  close  at  hand,  yet  one  man 
will  often  delay  everything.  General  contractors  are  not  to 
be  blamed  if  they  give  up  the  system  of  relying  upon  others 
and  figure  their  own  work. 

Bids  should  be  typewritten  if  possible,  but  the  figure  counts 
for  more  than  the  style.  Subcontractors  should  give  written 
bids  to  general  contractors  just  as  the  latter  have  to  do  to 
the  architect  or  owner.  A  bid,  if  accepted,  being  an  en- 
forcible  contract,  why  should  the  one  who  supplies  a  part 
of  it  not  be  liable  for  that  part  just  as  the  other  is  for  the 
total?  A  verbal  bid  is  enforcible,  but  requires  witnesses, 
while  a  written  one  is  clear  in  itself. 

Extras.  —  There  are  always  some  extras  to  be  taken  into 
consideration.  If  you  add  them  all  someone  else  will  get  the 
contract. 

There  is  the  question  of  heating  in  winter,  for  example. 
Someone  has  to  pay  for  it.  Which  one? 

Then  there  are  sheds  for  lime  and  tools;  and  also  one  for 
the  hoisting  engine,  if  there  is  one.  There  may  be  a  sidewalk 
to  put  around  the  building,  or  a  fence;  trees  might  have  to 
be  protected.  In  some  cases  there  might  be  storage  to  pay 
on  millwork.  In  others  depreciation  of  machinery  might 
have  to  be  taken  into  account.  There  might  be  legal  ex- 
penses; there  would  be  washing  of  windows  to  some  extent, 
and  cleaning  up  around  the  building.  There  might  be  a  rise 
of  wages  consequent  upon  the  formation  of  a  labor  union 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       49 

in  non-union  territory.  There  would  be  a  telephone  and 
office  rent,  and  so  on  to  the  end  of  the  possible  extra  list. 

If  everything  is  added,  as  it  should  be,  then  the  profit 
must  be  cut,  or  else  the  bid  might  as  well  not  be  put  in. 

Quantity  Surveyors.  —  At  least  one  large  New  York  firm 
has  quantities  taken  off  by  its  office  force,  and  submits  them 
to  subcontractors  for  prices.  This  saves  giving  out  plans  and 
waste  of  time  of  subcontractors,  all  taking  off  the  same  items. 
The  system  has  a  good  deal  to  commend  it. 

When  from  six  to  ten  general  contractors  and  several  times 
as  many  subcontractors  sit  down  to  one  poor  set  of  plans, 
it  means  that  a  great  deal  of  brain  matter  is  wasted.  There 
is  too  much  duplication  of  effort.  The  problem  of  the  twenti- 
eth century  is  to  be  the  elimination  of  waste. 

We  have  not  yet  come  to  the  system,  although  it  has  long 
been  in  force  in  England.  There  have  been  court  fights  over 
the  question  as  to  whether  the  quantities  are  to  be  considered 
reliable  documents,  and  whether  the  builder  should  get  extras 
if  they  are  not  complete.  The  general  understanding  is  that 
they  are  only  guides,  and  that  the  contractor  must  look 
over  the  plans  himself,  or  else  put  in  a  high  enough  profit 
to  cover  any  deficiency. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  surveyors  take  off  quantities  care- 
fully enough  for  any  contractor.  A  good  plan  might  be  to 
have  two  sets  of  quantities  made,  and  use  the  one  as  a  check 
on  the  other.  Two  men  would  thus  do  the  work  of  thirty 
or  forty. 


CHAPTER  VII 
BUILDING  CONTRACTS 

Mortgages.  —  Every  time  a  builder  signs  a  contract  he 
places  a  lien,  as  it  were,  on  his  property,  if  he  has  any. 
Many  of  them  know  this,  and  keep  their  property  in  their 
wife's  name,  so  that  in  case  of  trouble  it  will  still  be  in  the 
family.  Reversing  the  idea  of  the  man  in  civil  war  days  who 
was  willing  to  sacrifice  all  his  wife's  relations  on  the  altar 
of  his  beloved  country,  they  are  willing  to  sacrifice  everybody 
elsVs  property  to  keep  their  wife's  safe. 

Variety.  —  If  a  thousand  lawyers  were  gathered  together, 
and  each  asked  to  make  a  building  contract,  there  would  be 
at  least  999  varieties,  and  many  of  them  would  be  so  one- 
sided as  to  be  dangerous  to  all  except  the  man  who  paid 
for  the  legal  work.  If  you  can,  therefore,  hire  a  lawyer  to 
make  your  contract,  and  try  to  persuade  the  owner  to  sign 
it  as  it  stands.  The  owner  would  likely  object,  and  here  we 
come  to  a  conflict  of  interests,  to  two  men  each  trying  to 
"  get  the  best  of  the  deal." 

Uniform  Contract.  —  Architects  and  contractors  had  so  much 
of  this  kind  of  work,  and  so  many  court  disputes  over 
building  contracts  that  they  finally  drew  up  an  instrument 
which  they  copyrighted  in  1893  under  the  name  of  "  The 
Uniform  Contract."  It  is  recommended  for  general  use  by 
the  American  Institute  of  Architects  and  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Builders. 

This  contract  has  been  used  ever  since  it  was  issued  with 
increasing  satisfaction  to  builders  all  over  the  United  States. 
They  do  not  have  to  take  it  to  a  lawyer  for  examination  before 
they  sign  it.  They  know  that  it  has  been  tested  and  tried 
by  scores  of  lawyers,  and  by  an  army  of  architects,  con- 
tractors, and  owners.  It  is  fair  to  all  sides — as  fair  a 
contract  as  can  be  devised.  It  is  not  perfect,  for  almost  any 
lawyer  could  pick  flaws  in  it,  but  it  is  the  best  obtainable 
and  it  is  always  ready  and  always  safe. 

50 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       51 

Two  Sides.  —  Many  an  owner  would  like  an  instrument 
that  favored  him  more,  but  human  nature  is  apt  to  forget 
that  there  are  two  parties  to  a  contract,  and  that  the  one  has 
rights  as  well  as  the  other. 

One  Side.  —  It  is  not  a  just  contract  that  gives  the  sole 
power  of  settling  disputes  to  one  party.  A  man  is  likely 
to  settle  most  of  the  disputes  in  favor  of  himself  or  the  one 
who  pays  him.  If  it  is  replied  that  men  are  fair  enough 
to  do  right,  it  might  be  held  that  the  best  way  for  them  to 
show  their  fairness  is  to  be  willing  to  submit  disputes,  if 
necessary,  to  arbitration.  How  would  it  do,  for  a  little 
variety,  to  make  the  contractor  the  sole  judge  of  disputes 
in  state  or  railroad  contracts? 

Loss.  —  I  remember,  when  I  was  working  as  a  journeyman 
for  a  firm  of  contractors,  that  the  owner  furnished  part  of 
the  material  for  a  large  building.  He  failed  to  get  it  for  a 
long  while  after  it  was  required.  In  the  meantime  the  mill- 
work  came  and  had  to  be  stored  and  paid  for.  The  banker, 
who  was  at  fault,  instead  of  paying  the  contractor  for  loss 
of  time  charged  him  interest  on  the  money  he  had  to  borrow 
to  pay  for  the  millwork.  The  Uniform  Contract  provides 
that  the  owner  must  reimburse  the  contractor  for  such  loss. 
It  is  an  instrument  that  works  both  ways. 

Payment.  —  The  final  payment  on  a  building  has  to  be 
made  in  a  certain  number  of  days  after  completion,  under 
this  contract,  but  the  owner  is  entitled  to  keep  back  as 
much  money  as  will  clear  any  liens  or  just  claims. 

Insurance.  —  The  owner  also  takes  out  full  insurance  in 
his  own  name  and  in  the  name  of  the  contractor  against  loss 
or  damage  by  fire,  for  materials  already  in  the  building  or 
on  the  premises. 

Best  Contract.  —  This  U.  C.  is  the  best  for  a  contractor. 
It  costs  only  fifty  cents  for  twenty-five  copies.  This  is  surely 
a  cheap  enough  rate  for  legal  work.  It  is  now  (1911)  sold 
only  by  E.  G.  Soltmann,  125  East  42nd  Street,  New  York. 
It  was  formerly  handled  by  The  Inland  Architect. 

Owner's  Side.  —  The  interests  of  the  owner  have  been  taken 
care  of  by  the  architects. 

Blanks.  —  Of  course  blank  spaces  are  left  for  a  description 
of  the  building,  architect's  name,  and  other  matter  that  is 
different  for  each  particular  building.  A  legal  description 


52       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

of  the  property  should  also  be  inserted  in  the  usual  manner. 
Two  copies  should  be  made  out — one  for  the  owner,  and  the 
other  for  the  contractor. 

Subcontract.  —  The  success  of  the  U.  C.  has  been  so  gratify- 
ing that  the  Builders'  Uniform  Subcontract  has  been  drafted 
on  the  lines  of  the  older  one.  This  is  for  use  between  the 
general  and  the  subcontractor. 

Signed  Contracts.  —  It  is  better  to  have  a  signed  contract 
for  a  building  than  to  go  ahead  without  one.  It  is  true  that 
many  buildings  are  erected  simply  on  the  basis  of  the  con- 
tractor's bid,  made  out  "  according  to  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions of  the  architect";  but  when  copies  of  an  excellent 
contract  are  so  cheap,  why  not  use  them?  A  bid  is  seldom 
made  out  with  the  idea  that  it  is  of  itself  to  take  the  place 
of  a  formal  contract,  or  it  might  have  several  conditions  in 
it  that  are  usually  lacking.  What  provision  is  made  for 
insurance,  and  who  is  to  pay  for  it?  In  how  many  days 
after  the  building  is  accepted  is  the  final  payment  to  be 
made?  How  much  of  a  reserve  is  there  to  be?  There  are 
a  score  of  questions  that  might  come  up  and  cause  friction. 

Danger.  —  But  even  with  the  U.  C.  there  may  be  danger. 
Safety  lies  in  the  printed  part  which  is  always  the  same,  and 
is  only  three  sheets  long;  but  the  blank  spaces  may  be  filled 
up  in  such  a  way  as  to  lay  the  contractor  by  the  heels.  Is 
time  enough  given  for  the  completion  of  the  work?  Do  you 
wish  to  so  subdivide  the  time  as  to  say  that  each  story  shall 
be  finished,  or  the  roof  put  on,  or  the  plaster  completed  at 
a  certain  date?  A  contractor  might  be  hindered  on  one 
story  and  make  it  up  on  the  next. 

How  do  you  wish  the  payments  to  be  made?  Whenever  a 
heavy  bill  of  material  is  put  in  place,  or  a  brick  story  is 
finished,  or  at  the  end  of  each  month?  What  reserve  are  you 
willing  to  stand?  Would  you  be  willing  to  hang  yourself  if 
the  building  was  not  finished  for  a  month  after  the  time  set? 
Sometimes  contractors  become  sarcastic  and  say  that  any 
kind  of  a  contract  that  is  presented  will  be  signed  by  their 
simple  brethren. 

Specifications.  —  Occasionally  unreasonable  conditions  ap- 
pear in  the  specifications.  The  only  safe  way  is  to  state  in 
the  bid  that  such  and  such  provisions  will  not  be  carried  out, 
and  if  the  contract  is  awarded,  what  is  seriously  wrong  can 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       53 

be  pointed  out.  As  a  bid  is  a  contract,  it  is  bad  policy  to 
put  it  in  "  according  to  plans  and  specifications,"  and  then 
try  to  change  what  does  not  suit  before  the  contract  is  signed. 
If  your  bid  is  based  on  the  conditions  laid  down,  what  right 
have  you  to  expect  them  to  be  changed? 

It  should  be  remembered  that  after  a  contract  is  signed 
an  architect  has  no  right  to  change  his  own  specifications. 
In  the  U.  C.  both  plans  and  specifications  are  accepted  as  a 
part  of  the  contract,  and  they  must  be  signed  and  thus 
identified. 

Properly  speaking,  a  specification  should  not  encroach  upon 
the  contractual  field  at  all  as  some  of  them  do.  The  accept- 
ance of  unreasonable  conditions  here  may  nullify  much  of 
the  advantage  of  having  a  good  contract  form. 

This  whole  business  would  seem  to  be  a  kind  of  a  three- 
linked  chain.  The  plans  make  the  first  link;  the  specifica- 
tions describe  their  quality;  and  the  contract,  as  the  third 
link,  binds  the  whole  together. 

Talk.  —  Probably  in  about  a  thousand  years  some  con- 
tractors will  come  to  understand  that  verbal  agreements  with 
an  architect  are  not  worth  the  breath  that  made  them  after 
the  contract  is  signed,  and  the  plans  and  specifications  thus 
accepted.  An  architect  may  be  held,  even  after  the  contract 
is  signed,  for  a  verbal  interpretation  of  any  technical  phrase, 
or  something  of  that  kind  he  has  given;  but  the  plain  intent 
and  meaning  of  the  plans  and  specifications  govern,  and  no 
contractor  should  feel  hurt  that  they  do,  regardless  of  what 
he  has  been  verbally  told. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
NATURE  OF  CONTRACTS 

Stated,  or  Lump  Sum.  —  The  ordinary  contract  is  for  a  lump 
sum,  and  the  contractor  can  gain  or  lose  much  or  little  as 
he  may.  He  agrees  to  complete  the  building  for  so  much, 
usually  gives  security  that  he  can  do  so,  and  that  ends  it, — 
or  rather  begins  it. 

When  the  bids  are  opened  under  this  system  the  contract 
is  supposed  to  be  awarded  to  the  lowest  man,  who  makes 
what  he  can  out  of  it.  From  this  time  on  his  interest  is  to 
make  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  owner's  is  to  get  a  good 
quality  of  workmanship  in  a  reasonable  time. 

Opposing  Interests.  —  Of  course,  the  character  of  the  builder 
is  a  good  asset.  It  would  not  be  right  to  say  that  it  does  not 
matter  whether  he  makes  good  work  or  not,  pays  his  bills  or 
leaves  liens  behind  him,  and  completes  his  contracts  in  some- 
what near  the  specified  time;  but  all  this  being  remembered, 
it  is  yet  true  that  the  interests  of  the  owner  and  the  con- 
tractor, under  the  lump  sum  system,  are  opposed  to  each 
other.  After  the  figures  are  set  the  one  wants  to  give  as 
little  as  he  can,  and  the  other  wants  to  get  as  much  as 
possible. 

Total  Cost.  —  In  spite  of  this,  the  lump  sum  contract  has  a 
strong  hold  upon  the  public.  If  a  man  is  going  to  invest  a 
large  sum  of  money  in  a  building  he  wants  to  know  before 
he  goes  ahead  just  how  much  it  is  going  to  be.  One  hears 
of  merchants  who  have  been  ruined  by  outrageous  bills  for 
extras  through  incomplete  plans  and  specifications.  You  can 
not  blame  an  owner  if  he  wants  assurance  from  a  reputable 
contractor  that  his  building  will  not  overrun  a  certain  amount 
of  money.  He  can  then  allow  beyond  the  face  of  the  pro- 
posal any  reasonable  percentage  which  may  be  looked  for  on 
account  of  changes  or  extras.  This  stated,  or  lump  sum, 
system  has  endured  for  centuries  in  spite  of  rascally  con- 
tractors and  grasping  owners. 

54 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       55 

Percentage  Plan.  —  This  system  makes  the  contractor  secure, 
but  is  sometimes  rather  costly  to  the  owner.  The  men  occa- 
sionally find  out  that  it  is  a  time  or  day  labor  job,  and  act 
accordingly.  But  they  forget  that  by  making  such  work 
expensive  they  lessen  the  demand  for  it,  and  increase  the 
demand  for  the  harder  work  under  the  lump  sum  contract. 
The  temptation  under  the  percentage  plan  is  to  make  the 
work  as  costly  as  possible,  for  the  higher  the  cost,  the  greater 
the  percentage  the  contractor  has  for  his  own  pocket,  and 
human  nature  is  not  yet  perfect.  The  undertaker  has,  of 
course,  to  look  grave  under  all  circumstances,  even  while 
business  is  "rushing."  But  away  deep  down?  Eh? 

Mutuality.  —  But  the  interests  of  the  two  high  contracting 
parties  are  closer  together  than  under  the  stated  sum  system. 
The  buying  of  the  material  alone,  or  the  opportunity  to  get 
it  bought  according  to  his  wishes,  for  one  thing,  soothes  the 
owner;  and  if  he  wishes  he  can  put  on  twice  as  many  men 
to  hurry  up  the  work  as  the  contractor  could  afford  to  do. 
He  pays  the  bills.  Under  the  lump  sum  the  contractor  does 
not  want  the  owner  to  know  anything  about  the  price  of 
material,  for  there  is,  or  should  be,  a  profit  on  that  as  well 
as  on  anything  else. 

Contractors  like  this  plan,  and  it  is  a  good  one,  but  owners 
are  not  favorably  disposed  towards  it,  unless  one  here  and 
there  who  wants  good  materials  and  workmanship  in  a  per- 
manent investment. 

Amount.  —  The  percentage  varies.  Ten  per  cent,  on  the 
actual  cost  is  a  sort  of  a  standard,  and  sometimes  as  low  as 
six  is  gladly  accepted  on  plain  work.  These  figures  do  not 
include  office  expenses.  There  is  no  risk  of  losing  money, 
and  the  percentage  is  often  cut  to  the  owner's  advantage. 

On  alteration  and  repair  work  this  is  really  a  much  better 
arrangement  for  both  parties  than  the  first  plan.  It  is  hard 
to  figure  some  changes.  I  heard  yesterday  of  two  bids  on 
alterations.  One  was  for  $22,000  and  the  other  for  $13,000. 

Cost  Plus  a  Fixed  Sum  System.  —  This  is  the  system  that 
Mr.  Gilbreth  is  making  popular,  and  whatever  may  be  said  of 
it  otherwise,  he  does  not  let  it  suffer  for  lack  of  advertising. 
He  insists  that  it  is  the  only  proper  form  of  contract,  and 
that  there  should  not  be  any  guaranteed  maximum  of  cost 
in  connection  with  it. 


56      CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  owner  states  the  amount  he  proposes  to  invest,  and 
the  contractor  states  how  much  he  wants  for  the  use  of  his 
organization,  machinery,  tools,  etc.  Of  course,  the  contractor 
can  look  over  the  plans  for  himself  and  see  if  the  owner's 
estimate  is  about  right  before  giving  his  figure. 

"  The  lump  sum  contract,"  says  Mr.  Gilbreth,  "  is  a  license 
to  support  lawyers  and  a  privilege  to  pay  court  costs,  and  if 
there  were  no  more  lump  sum  contracts,  one  half  of  the 
lawyers  would  have  to  abandon  their  calling  for  some  other 
work." 

This  exponent  of  the  Cost  Plus  System  says  that  the 
right  name  for  the  lump  sum  contract  would  be,  "  The  lump- 
sum-plus-extra-work-plus-time-extension  -  plus  -  lawyers'-  bills  " 
contract.  Many  a  man  has  signed  such  contracts,  and  many 
a  square  mile  has  been  covered  with  work  done  under  them, 
without  thinking  that  there  was  such  a  long  name  hidden 
near. 

"  The  entire  theory  of  the  Cost  Plus  a  Fixed  Sum  contract," 
says  Mr.  Gilbreth,  "  is  that  the  owner  shall  have  his  own  way 
in  any  and  all  matters  pertaining  to  his  work.  He  shall  have 
the  right  to  decide  what  materials  shall  be  bought,  and 
whether  or  not  they  shall  be  bought  of  the  lowest  bidder. 
He  shall  have  the  right  to  have  the  contractor  put  on  as 
many  or  as  few  men  as  the  owner  wants,  regardless  of  whether 
or  not  there  are  strikes.  His  decision  shall  be  final  regarding 
the  paying  of  bonuses  for  the  quick  delivery  of  material,  and 
his  decision  shall  be  final  on  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
conduct  of  the  job." 

This  entire  fixed  sum,  whatever  it  is,  must  be  net  profit, 
without  deduction  for  office  expenses,  or  anything  else. 

Profits.  —  But  Mr.  Gilbreth  is  wrong  in  saying  that  lump 
sum  contractors  figure  on  two  profits — first,  the  regular  one, 
and  second,  the  one  for  risk,  on  account  of  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances that  may  develop.  Alas,  and  alas!  There  is  by 
far  too  much  competition  for  any  such  heavy  profits  in  ordi- 
nary building  work.  One  profit  is  all  that  it  will  stand,  and 
very  often  that  one  is  not  so  large  as  it  should  be. 

Comparison.  —  It  is  not  likely  that  this  plan  will  supersede 
the  old  lump  sum  one,  but  nevertheless  it  is  a  good  way  of 
doing  work,  perhaps  the  best  of  the  three  systems.  No 
matter  how  things  go,  the  owner  knows  that  the  contractor 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       57 

will  make  only  a  certain  amount  of  money.  He  is  interested 
in  keeping  costs  down;  there  is  no  desire  for  extras,  but 
rather  a  hope  to  finish  without  them,  for  they  delay  the 
happy  hour  when  the  last  installment  of  the  money  will  be 
turned  over;  where  there  can  be  no  quarreling  over  the  price 
of  extras  a  better  feeling  exists;  and  if  the  owner  is  rich 
enough  to  pay  cash  for  his  materials  he  may  get  the  trade 
discount — but  this  applies  as  well,  of  course,  to  the  percentage 
plan. 

Time.  —  Another  advantage  is  the  gain  in  time.  The  work 
on  the  foundation  can  go  ahead  while  the  plans  are  being 
prepared  for  the  upper  stories.  So  also  under  the  percentage 
plan.  But  under  the  lump  sum  they  must  be  complete  before 
contractors  can  make  up  their  figures;  although  the  basement 
is  often  let  in  a  separate  contract  to  hurry  things  up. 

Hobson's  Choice.  —  Mr.  Gilbreth  will  not  take  any  other 
kind  of  contracts.  He  is  afraid  of  being  led  into  temptation. 
He  says,  "  We  found  that  there  was  a  tendency  to  put  our 
best  superintendents  and  our  apprentices  who  could  do  a 
man's  work  for  an  apprentice's  pay,  and  our  best  plant  on 
lump  sum  contracts,  and  the  second-class  foremen,  '  old 
pensioners/  and  the  rest  of  the  plant  on  the  Cost-plus 
contracts.  To  do  away  with  this  '  tendency,'  we  made  it 
an  iron-bound  rule  to  take  no  more  lump  sum  contracts 
under  any  conditions  whatever,  regardless  of  how  much  profit 
there  might  be  in  them,  and  we  will  not  award  a  subcontract 
for  labor  or  material  on  the  cost-plus  basis  if  the  sub- 
contractor has  any  lump  sum  contracts  being  constructed 
simultaneously." 

There  you  have  it  in  white  and  black — the  Cost  Plus  being 
white  as  the  newly  fallen  snow,  and  all  other  systems  black 
as  the  raven. 

Few  contractors  can  afford  to  say  that  they  will  not  take 
contracts  except  upon  one  system.  Most  of  them  are  ready 
to  take  it  on  any  system  that  promises  good  results, — lump, 
sum,  percentage,  cost  plus,  or  catch-as-catch-can. 

Maximum.  —  It  is  all  well  enough  to  say  that  no  guaranteed 
maximum  figure  shall  be  given,  but  men  with  a  few  dollars, 
short  of  a  million  simply  cannot  afford  to  go  blindly  into  any 
building  project.  They  must  know  how  much  it  is  going  to 
cost.  It  is  idle  to  say  that  an  architect's  figure  should  be 


58       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

sufficient.  An  architect  is  not  a  contractor,  and  is  not  held 
financially  responsible  if  his  estimate  is  exceeded  twenty-five 
or  fifty  per  cent.  His  commission  is  paid  on  the  percentage 
plan,  and  by  the  rules  of  the  largest  association  of  architects 
this  plan  is  the  only  one  he  is  allowed  to  follow. 

Mr.  Gilbreth  says  that  the  "  fixed  sum  "  to  be  paid  is  fixed 
in  a  guaranteed  maximum  contract  only  in  case  the  maximum 
is  not  reached,  and  thus  the  interests  of  the  parties  are  once 
more  opposed,  as  in  the  lump  sum  system.  Every  change 
in  the  plans  brings  up  the  question  of  extras,  and  the  lawyers 
have  to  be  brought  in. 

Choice.  —  Merely  for  the  independence  of  unnecessary  con- 
trol many  a  contractor  would  prefer  the  old-style  lump  sum 
if  he  had  his  choice.  He  has  been  accustomed  to  take  re- 
sponsibility for  his  estimates  so  long  that  he  is  not  afraid 
to  continue.  If  he  loses,  that  is  his  own  business,  and  so 
likewise  if  he  gains. 

Public  Work.  —  As  things  are  now  arranged  practically  all 
city,  county,  state,  and  national  work  must  be  done  under 
competitive  bidding.  This  means  the  lump  sum  contract. 

Average  Bid.  —  Once,  away  back  in  a  town  by  the  name  of 
Timbuctoo,  Africa,  we  shall  call  it  to  avoid  Anti-Trust  decla- 
mation, contractors  became  tired  fighting  one  another  and 
competing  in  a  world  where  combination  is  gaining  ground 
every  day.  The  Geniuses  among  them  evolved  the  system  of 
the  Average  Bid.  Before  the  actual  bids  were  handed  in 
there  was  a  sort  of  a  seance  among  the  bidders,  and  the 
figures  were  laid  down,  cartes  sur  table. 

Supposing  there  were  half  a  dozen  bids,  they  were  added 
together,  divided  by  six,  and  the  one  nearest  the  average 
made  out  the  winning  bid,  which  he  handed  in  to  the  architect 
with  as  grave  a  visage  as  the  circumstances  called  for.  The 
ether  bids  were  raised  above  the  average  one  and  put  in  with 
a  gravity  that  did  not  have  to  be  assumed.  No  returns  were 
expected. 

This  was  but  a  variation  of  the  unjust  straw  bid  style. 
In  taking  bids,  the  implied  understanding  is  that  there  is  to 
be  an  honest  competition,  and  this  was  not. 

The  arrangement  fell  to  pieces  after  several  jobs  had  been 
captured  by  "  scabs  "  outside  the  union.  One  of  the  amusing 
things  we  run  across  to  keep  us  cheerful  in  this  world  on  a 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       59 

rainy  day  is  the  sight  of  some  contractors  denouncing  labor 
unions.  As  the  proverb  says,  it  makes  a  difference1  whose 
pig  is  stuck. 

Fair  Value.  —  Probably  this  average  bid  is  nearer  the  true 
value  of  a  building  than  either  the  lowest  or  highest,  but  if 
an  owner  can  get  a  responsible  man  to  put  up  his  building 
five  or  ten  per  cent,  lower  than  the  average  he  does  not  care 
to  enter  into  academic  questions. 

Trusts.  —  In  spite  of  the  denunciation  of  trusts  we  hear 
on  all  sides  this  incident  shows  that  even  in  Timbuctoo  the 
desire  for  a  kind  of  a  trust  is  not  unknown  among  those 
who  hate  the  large  ones.  It  makes  a  WONDERFUL  difference 
whose  pig  is  stuck.  Trustification  is  the  system  of  the  hour, 
and  is  going  to  increase.  Farming  and  building  would  seem 
to  be  two  great  industries  that  are  hard  to  trustify. 

Unit  Price.  —  Sometimes  the  work  is  done  on  a  unit  price 
of  so  much  per  thousand  for  brick,  per  yard  for  plaster  and 
paint,  per  pound  for  steel  and  iron,  and  so  on;  but  if  an 
owner  is  not  accustomed  to  trade  methods  of  measurement 
he  is  apt  to  have  a  much  larger  bill  than  he  expects.  He 
should  specify  actual  quantities  and  measurement  only. 

Official  Schedules.  —  A  variation  of  the  unit  price  idea  is 
found  in  the  system  that  some  engineers  have  of  making  out 
a  schedule  of  the  costs,  adding  a  certain  amount  for  builder's 
profit,  and  then  putting  the  total  at  100.  Bids  are  taken 
on  this  basis,  and  the  nearest  to  the  figures  get  the 
contract. 

In  New  York,  August,  1907,  a  building  costing  $160,000  was 
let  by  the  city  to  a  contractor  on  this  basis.  The  average  of 
the  bids  ran  to  99.3  per  cent,  of  the  engineer's  figures,  which 
are  given  to  the  bidders.  The  lowest  was  92  and  the  highest 
111. 

Like  the  surveyor's  quantity  system  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
save  reckless  bidding,  but  the  difference  between  92  and  111 
is  large  enough  to  satisfy  everybody.  This  is  a  public  recog- 
nition of  the  Average  Bid,  and  justifies  the  course  pursued 
in  Timbuctoo  back  in  the  last  century.  Africa  led  the  world 
then.  We  are  slowly  coming  to  her  ideal. 

Unfair  Bidding.  —  When  the  unit  price  system  is  followed 
there  have  been  many  cases  where  the  contractors  put  in  the 
Unbalanced  Bid  with  which  all  states,  counties,  and  cities 


60       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

are  more  or  less  familiar  in  tenders  for  groceries,  printing, 
and  everything  else. 

If  a  bidder  suspects  that  there  is  to  be  a  much  larger 
quantity  of  plaster,  suppose,  than  what  is  called  for  on  the 
schedule  he  can  put  in  a  price  on  some  other  items  below 
what  they  are  worth,  if  again  he  is  sure  that  far  less  of 
them  will  be  required  than  is  listed,  and  a  very  high  price 
on  plaster.  He  can  thus  bring  his  total  lower  than  that 
of  the  competitor  who  gives  a  fair  price  on  each  item. 
When  he  gets  the  contract,  he  loses  on,  say,  100  yards  of 
paint  which  he  does  for  3  cents,  but  makes  it  up  on  100 
yards  of  plaster  at  881/2  cents.  Of  course  there  must  be 
enough  of  the  small  items  listed  to  cover  the  difference. 
Cases  have  been  known  where,  say,  2,000  yards  of  paint  were 
listed  in  the  schedule,  while  those  on  the  inside  knew  that 
the  authorities  would  do  only  100.  And  so  on  with  other 
items. 

The  engineering  system  alluded  to  above  is  a  good  check 
on  any  work  of  this  kind.  It  is  easy  enough  to  establish  a 
fair  price  for  every  item,  and  hand  it  out  on  a  basis  of  100. 
Then  bids  below  a  certain  percentage  would  be  thrown  aside. 

The  original  idea  in  Timbuctoo  was  to  set  a  certain  per- 
centage above  or  below  which  all  figures  would  be  discarded. 
Delenda  est  Timbuctoo! 


CHAPTER  IX 
GENERAL  CONTRACTING  OR  SUBLETTING 

Sharing  Nothing.  —  It  is  said  that  one  of  the  maxims  of 
the  Standard  Oil  corporation  is  to  allow  a  profit  to  nobody 
in  the  business  of  refining  oil.  The  large  building  contracting 
firms  follow  this  system,  as  a  rule,  by  hiring  mechanics 
directly,  and  putting  a  competent  foreman  over  them,  with 
a  superintendent  over  all. 

Sharing  Part. — Another  method  commonly  in  vogue  among 
general  contractors  is  to  make  their  own  estimates,  and  after 
they  receive  the  contract,  sublet  the  most  of  the  work,  often 
retaining  for  themselves  only  the  masonry,  if  they  happen 
to  be  bricklayers,  or  the  carpentry  if  they  are  carpenters. 

Sharing  More.  —  Still  another  method,  and  probably  the 
one  most  relied  on  all  over  the  land,  is  for  the  general  con- 
tractor to  estimate  the  work  for  his  own  trade,  and  take 
bids  on  all  the  other  branches  before  he  makes  up  his  total. 

Subletting  may,  of  course,  also  be  done  under  the  cost  plus 
and  the  percentage  plans  discussed  in  the  last  chapter.  After 
the  general  contractor  settles  with  the  owner,  he  turns  to 
the  subcontractors  and  arranges  his  contracts  with  them. 

Profit  and  Loss.  —  Each  system  has  its  good  and  bad 
points.  There  are  many  who  would  like  in  their  little  spheres 
to  be  as  the  Standard  Oil  is  nationally,  in  this  respect,  but 
they  lack  the  necessary  capital,  and  rebates  are  not  so  popu- 
lar as  formerly.  And  so  it  is  that  the  local  minnow  cannot 
always  follow  the  course  of  the  national  whale. 

To  keep  vaulting  ambition  from  o'erleaping  itself,  one  of 
our  commercial  agencies  reports  that  a  very  large  percentage 
of  failures  in  business  come  from  the  attempt  to  do  too 
much  on  too  small  a  capital.  Why  should  anyone  ruin 
himself  financially  in  trying  to  grasp  too  much?  For  the 
majority  of  beginners  especially,  the  live  and  let  live  policy 

61 


62       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

is  clearly  the  most  advisable.  With  more  experience  and 
larger  capital  they  may  come  to  the  time  when  they  can 
grasp  every  loose  dollar  they  see. 

Advantage.  —  Of  course,  the  advantages  of  the  first  system 
are  not  altogether  confined  to  the  opportunity  of  making 
more  money  than  is  possible  under  the  subletting  plan. 
When  a  subcontractor  handles  a  part  of  the  work  there  is 
often  friction  as  to  when  certain  things  shall  be  done,  and 
the  main  contractor  is  occasionally  held  back  by  waiting  on 
an  indispensable,  though  often  a  small  item;  while  the  man 
who  sublets  nothing  can  manage  to  suit  himself,  and  his 
interest  will  not  permit  him  to  hold  up  a  complete  building 
waiting  for  a  carpenter  contractor  to  lay  some  joists,  or  for 
a  few  bricklayers  to  build  a  wall  story  high. 

Risk.  —  Then  there  is  the  risk  of  the  failure  of  subcon- 
tractors avoided  under  this  plan.  No  matter  how  careful  a 
general  contractor  is  with  his  own  estimates,  if  he  bases 
three-fourths  of  his  bid  on  the  accepted  figures  of  subcontrac- 
tors there  is  always  a  danger  that  someone  will  go  by  the 
board  and  fail  to  complete  his  contract. 

Surety  Bond.  —  It  may  be  replied  that  by  taking  a  bond 
from  a  subcontractor  this  risk  might  be  avoided,  and  probably 
it  is  true,  but  as  a  practical  matter  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten  bonds  are  not  asked  from  subcon- 
tractors by  those  who  have  to  give  a  bond  themselves  to  finish 
the  whole  building.  There  is  a  happy-go-lucky  method  of 
doing  business  among  men  who  are  so  well  acquainted  with 
each  other  as  contractors  are,  and  the  legal  side  of  the  ques- 
tion is  usually  overlooked.  The  general  contractor  is  tied  up 
as  hard  as  the  lawyers  can  do  it ;  but  while  subcontractors 
know  this,  many  of  them  would  feel  hurt  if  asked  to  give 
the  same  security  on  a  part  of  the  building  as  the  owner 
demands  on  the  whole.  The  safe  course  is  to  deal  only  with 
men  who  have  some  property  in  their  own  names,  and  not 
in  those  of  their  wives,  and  character  enough  to  make  good 
any  loss,  sooner  or  later. 

Liability.  —  A  much  more  serious  danger  than  that  of 
failure  is  that  from  fire  and  accident,  especially  the  latter. 
A  general  contractor  is  usually  included  in  any  damage 
suits  against  a  subcontractor.  This  subject  is  discussed  in 
another  chapter. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       63 

Friction.  —  Another  risk  eliminated  by  one  contractor  hand- 
ling everything  is  that  due  to  the  human  nature  that  we 
all  more  or  less  have.  Some  men  take  to  each  other  as  David 
and  Jonathan  or  Damon  and  Pythias  did;  others  meet,  and 
in  their  dislike  for  each  other  seem  to  forget  that  they  belong 
to  the  same  race.  While,  theoretically,  the  owner  and  the 
subcontractor  are  supposed  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  each 
other,  as  they  are  only  connected  through  the  general  con- 
tractor; as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  meet  and  sometimes  fight 
over  extras,  delays,  the  quality  of  the  work,  or  the  finding 
of  the  North  Pole,  in  default  of  anything  else.  The  chances 
of  disagreement  are  lessened  when  only  one  man  or  firm 
deals  with  another. 

Supplies.  —  But  even  the  largest  firms  cannot  manufacture 
all  their  materials.  They,  in  their  turn,  have  to  deal  with 
supply  houses  and  lumber  companies.  Steel  rails,  lumber, 
plaster,  stone,  plumbing  goods,  marble,  elevators,  and  other 
materials  are  seldom  made  by  any  building  firm. 

Good  System.  —  The  next  best  system  is  for  the  general 
contractor  to  make  his  own  complete  estimates,  and  sublet 
after  he  gets  the  contract.  He  can  then  get  lower  figures 
than  when  merely  putting  in  a  bid  and  taking  his  chances 
with  others  on  getting  the  work. 

Risk.  —  By  this  method,  however,  there  is  a  chance  for  a 
general  contractor  to  occasionally  lose  a  contract  that  he 
might  have  had  by  taking  some  extra  low  figure  from  a 
subcontractor;  but,  taking  it  all  around,  there  are  chances 
that  he  himself  might  make  a  lower  figure  than  anyone  else, 
and  thus  get  the  work. 

Beginners.  —  The  best  system  for  the  young  contractor  is 
to  be  modest  at  first,  and  to  take  bids  from  the  various 
tradesmen.  By  this  system  a  fair  idea  of  costs  will  gradually 
work  itself  in  on  the  mind,  just  as  spelling  is  usually  better 
learned  by  reading  than  by  rote,  and  when  experience  has 
done  its  work  the  other  way  of  estimating  the  complete 
structure  can  be  adopted. 

Dividing  TTp.  —  Another  system  is  for  the  owner  to  give  out 
his  work  in  detail.  The  contractor  for  each  branch  thus  deals 
directly  with  the  owner.  He  would  sign  the  Uniform  Contract 
instead  of  the  Subcontract,  as  with  a  general  contractor. 

This  is  a  fair  system,  and  in   some  parts  of  the  country 


64       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

it  is  closely  adhered  to.  The  carpenter,  for  example,  takes 
only  the  woodwork,  and  thus  gets  a  smaller  profit  on  the 
contract,  but  he  can  attend  to  more  buildings  with  his  capital. 
The  owner  has  to  see  that  each  one  has  liability  insurance 
instead  of  the  general  contractor  only  under  the  other  system. 

There  is  sometimes  trouble  caused  by  delay.  The  one  blames 
the  other  and  there  is  no  expert  like  the  general  contractor  to 
crack  the  whip  and  settle  disputes. 

Day's  Work.  —  Still  another  system  is  for  the  owner  to  buy 
his  own  material,  put  foremen  in  charge,  and  do  the  work 
by  the  day,  or  rather  the  hour,  which  is  the  unit  in  all  build- 
ing work.  He  can  thus  secure  a  good  quality  of  work,  but 
if  the  wrong  kind  of  men  are  dealt  with  the  pocketbook  has 
to  suffer.  I  once  knew  of  a  case  where  the  labor  on  brickwork 
for  a  very  rich  owner  cost  $29  per  1,000  instead  of  less  than 
one-fourth  of  this,  which  would  have  been  enough  for  a 
contractor. 

Experience.  —  A  contractor  should  not  undertake  to  do  work 
outside  of  his  own  trade  until  he  has  a  reasonably  fair  idea 
of  what  an  average  day's  work  is  for  a  mechanic  in  other 
trades.  A  good  foreman  helps  wonderfully,  but  it  is  safer 
when  the  contractor  knows  a  little  himself. 

Two  Ways.  —  An  endeavor  has  sometimes  been  made  by 
Builders'  Exchanges  to  have  bids  taken  either  complete  or 
separately,  but  not  both  together.  In  other  words,  if  A.  B., 
the  owner,  wanted  his  work  done  by  a  general  contractor 
only,  he  would  take  complete  bids;  but  if  he  wanted  to  let 
it  out  to  subcontractors,  he  would  have  to  take  bids  only 
from  them  and  not  from  the  general  contractor  at  the  same 
time. 

In  a  way,  this  is  reasonable.  It  is  easy  enough  for  an 
owner  to  gather  sub-bids  together  and  show  to  the  general 
contractor  that  his  total  is  greater  than  the  sum  of  his  sepa- 
rate bid  and  the  combined  sub-bids.  He  naturally  has  to  add 
a  profit  for  handling  all  the  other  work  and  being  responsible 
for  it.  If  the  owner  chooses  to  take  the  responsibility  for  the 
execution  of  the  work,  fire  risk,  damage  suits,  liens,  delays, 
and  other  troubles  incident  to  the  business,  then  he  should 
deal  directly  with  the  subcontractors,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
but  not  expect  the  general  contractor  to  risk  damage  suits 
and  endless  trouble  for  nothing.  Many  an  owner  has  found 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       65 

out  that  it  paid  him  to  have  a  responsible  general  contractor 
between  him  and  the  deep  sea.  Others  of  them  see  through 
the  game  well  enough;  they  want  all  the  security,  but  want  it 
for  nothing.  They  want  the  carpenter  to  be  content  with  the 
profit  on  the  carpenter  work  alone,  but  like  a  good  fellow 
to  be  responsible  for  all  the  other  branches,  and  save  the 
owner  from  a  summons  to  answer  a  suit  for  $25,000  damages 
for  a  man  killed  when  putting  on  $23.50  worth  of  tin. 


CHAPTER  X 
METHOD  OF  WORK 

Starting.  —  When  the  contracts  are  awarded,  the  next  thing 
is  to  start  the  building  as  promptly  as  possible. 

Laying  out  Work.  —  For  cottages  and  small  buildings  an 
engineer  is  seldom  required.  The  contractor  lays  out  the  lines 
himself.  In  cities  the  sidewalks  give  a  straight  line,  on  at 
least  one  side.  This  is  accurate  enough  for  practical  pur- 
poses, and  the  front  of  the  building  is  laid  out  parallel  with 
it  at  the  required  distance  back.  Temporary  stakes  are  then 
driven  far  enough  outside  of  the  sides  that  the  digging  will 
not  disturb  them.  A  line  is  stretched  across  the  front  and 
tied  to  the  stakes,  and  the  side  lines  are  run  down  at  right 
angles  to  it,  or  "  square  "  from  it,  according  to  the  width  of 
the  building.  Then  the  rear  line  is  stretched  across  parallel 
with  the  one  on  the  front. 

This  finishes  the  main  part  of  an  ordinary  building,  and  the 
offsets  and  angles  are  measured  from  it. 

Stakes.  —  Any  kind  of  a  strip  of  wood  is  suitable — 1  x  2, 
or  2x2.  They  should  be  driven  in,  clear  of  any  excavating 
line,  so  that  they  will  not  be  disturbed. 

Squaring.  —  Most  carpenters  know  how  to  square  the  corners 
by  using  a  10-ft.  measuring  pole.  The  diagram  will  explain 
the  method.  The  line  AB  is  laid  out  parallel  with  the 
sidewalk  at  the  right  distance  back  for  the  main  front  wall 
of  the  house.  The  stakes  are  driven  at  A,  B,  and  a  mason's 
cord  stretched.  On  this  cord,  stick  in  a  pin  at  C,  where  the 
corner  of  the  house  is  to  be.  Measure  off  the  width  of  the 
house  and  put  a  mark  at  D,  or  stick  in  another  pin.  From  C 
to  G,  mark  off  8  feet.  Run  down  a  side  line  from  C  to  E, 
and  let  it  stretch  over  far  enough  to  reach  I  and  K.  Make 
the  line  fast  to  a  temporary  stake  at  C,  or  hold  it  fast  there 
by  the  hand,  and  mark  6  feet  down  to  H.  Take  the  10-ft. 
pole,  and  with  one  end  at  G  swing  it  round  until  the  6-ft. 

66 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       67 

point  just  touches  the  other  end.  The  line  CE  will  then 
be  square  with  the  line  AB.  Drive  stakes  at  I,  K,  and  make 
fast. 

This  •  gives  the  two  main  lines,  and  the  rest  is  easy.     The 
distances  are  just  measured  from  them.     The  ground  is  marked 


L 
F_ 


1 


for  digging,  the  lines  removed,  but  the  stakes  I,  J  and  K,  L ; 
A,  B  and  M,  N  are  left  to  get  the  exact  lines  when  the  brick- 
work begins. 

The  engineer  proceeds  in  another  way,  and  drives  a  nail 
in  the  top  of  the  stakes  to  keep  the  exact  lines. 

Projections.  —  For  bay  windows  and  such  work  a  template 
is  often  made  so  that  the  mason  may  have  a  good  guide  to 
go  by. 

Level.  —  A  builder's  level  is  a  useful  instrument  around  a 
structure  of  any  size,  as  it  saves  leveling  by  the  ordinary 
straightedge,  and  is  more  accurate. 


68       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Lot  Line.  —  When  a  building  is  to  come  close  to,  or  on  the 
lot  line,  the  only  safe  way  is  to  get  an  engineer,  and  preferably 
cne  acquainted  with  the  city  data  and  all  the  mistakes  in 
street  lines,  lots,  and  so  on,  to  give  the  exact  position. of  the 
corners.  In  some  cases  where  "  spite  work "  has  had  its 
innings,  brick  walls  have  had  to  be  chiseled  off  when  they  over- 
lapped on  the  other  property.  Courts  have  had  much  to  do 
with  this  lot  line  question.  Never  build  on  the  line  without 
first  getting  a  good  engineer.  It  is  too  dangerous. 

Footings.  —  It  is  not  safe  to  run  over  even  for  the  footings, 
no  matter  how  advantageous  it  may  seem  to  be,  without  a 
legal  agreement  giving  permission  for  the  extension. 

Telephone.  —  If  the  building  is  large  and  far  removed  from 
the  business  center  of  town  or  the  supply  yards,  it  pays 
to  put  in  a  telephone.  It  sometimes  s.aves  its  cost  in  a 
week. 

Tool  House.  —  A  tool  house  and  a  lime  house  are  built  if 
the  size  of  the  building  justifies  them.  In  rainy  climates  the 
roof  of  the  lime  house  must  be  protected. 

Water.  —  Connections  must  be  made  by  the  plumber  in 
cities,  and  a  supply  provided  for  in  country  districts. 

Excavation.  —  Contractors  prefer,  as  a  rule,  to  let  out  the 
excavation  to  a  local  man  who  has  his  own  teams,  plows, 
scrapers,  and  labor  force  accustomed  to  the  work. 

Liens.  —  Some  of  the  grading  contractors  have  to  be  watched 
to  see  that  they  pay  wages  as  they  should,  or  else  there  may 
be  a  crop  of  liens  to  harvest. 

Delivery  of  Material.  —  As  large  a  supply  of  material  as 
possible  should  be  assembled  on  the  ground  ready  for  the 
men  when  the  excavation  is  finished,  but  not  so  much  as  to 
make  rehandling  necessary.  Many  a  foundation  has  been 
blocked  for  weeks  waiting  on  a  few  frames,  ironwork,  or 
something  of  that  kind. 

Placing  of  Material.  —  Brick,  lumber,  and  such  heavy  stuff 
can  sometimes  be  so  placed  around  a  building  as  to  avoid 
long  wheeling  or  carrying ;  and  the  lime  house  should  be  placed 
in  a  position  where  the  whole  building  can  be  best  served. 
In  cases  where  a  hoist  is  used,  this  is  close  to  the  opening 
leading  to  it. 

Power.  —  On  a  building  of  such  size  as  to  make  use  of  a 
motor  or  hoisting  engine,  brick,  lumber,  frames,  steel  beams, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       69 

and  other  materials  should  be  placed  where  they  can  be  most 
conveniently  fed  to  the  machine. 

Number  of  Men.  —  In  the  "  Estimator  "  the  amount  of  con- 
crete that  men  can  mix,  of  brick  they  can  lay,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  laborers  required  for  bricklayers  and  plasterers  are 
given,  and  this  gives  a  fair  idea  of  the  number  of  men  re- 
quired to  finish  a  foundation  in  a  certain  time. 

Forms.  —  If  concrete  is  used  for  a  base  and  the  ground  is 
soft,  or  the  top  of  the  walls  comes  higher  than  the  banks, 
forms  must  be  set  up.  Occasionally  the  inside  of  the  wall 
only  is  planked  up,  and  the  concrete  is  then  poured  in  between 
the  solid  bank  and  the  wood;  but  some  authorities  object  to 
this,  and  want  the  wood  on  both  sides. 

Bolts.  —  I  have  come  to  respect  bolts  more  than  I  used  to. 

In  a  frame  building  it  is  often  necessary  to  build  them  in 
at  the  right  height  to  receive  the  sill. 

It  would  be  a  good  idea  in  a  masonry  wall  to  build  in 
bolts  to  hold  back  each  side  of  a  door  frame.  The  ordinary 
anchors  cannot  be  tightened  up  if  the  frame  bulges  out  in 
the  center.  Why  not  just  build  in  a  bolt  to  draw  it  back 
against  the  masonry  at  any  time  ? 

Wind.  —  In  stormy  countries  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the 
contractor  to  see  for  himself  that  there  is  a  wind  stop  around 
all  frames,  and  that  the  mortar  is  slushed  carefully  in.  Why 
have  the  ill-will  of  an  owner  over  such  a  small  matter  as  that? 

Joists.  —  While  the  masonry  has  been  going  on  the  car- 
penters have  been  getting  ready  all  the  heavy  framing,  in  order 
to  waste  no  time  with  laying  off  the  masons.  It  is  often 
possible  to  get  one  side  ready  and  turn  the  gang  over  to  that 
while  the  other  is  being  prepared. 

The  walls  are  run  up,  the  roof  put  on,  the  sash  put  in  all 
in  the  ordinary  course  that  every  carpenter  knows,  and  that 
need  not  be  gone  over  here. 

System.  —  The  business  world  of  our  day  is  full  of  "  Sys- 
tem " ;  indeed,  we  hear  so  much  about  it  that  it  is  a  matter  of 
suprise  that  any  work  can  be  got  done,  for  every  energy  would 
seem  to  be  required  to  systematize  things.  There  are  quite 
a  number  of  slick  gentlemen  who  are  making  a  good  living 
working  this  "  system "  fad  by  day  and  by  night  in  relays, 
and  like  the  apostle,  they  magnify  their  calling.  We  cannot 
blame  them  too  much. 


70       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Yet  the  regular  workers  on  a  building  have  forgotten  more 
about  how  it  should  be  done  than  the  system  mongers  have 
ever  learned,  with  their  three  turns  to  the  right  for  one  to 
the  left. 

Delay.  —  It  seems  to  be  almost  unavoidable  at  the  end. 
Some  trifling  order  may  be  placed  in  the  east  for  a  particular 
installation,  and  no  amount  of  system  will  force  a  rich 
manufacturer  to  lay  aside  his  regular  orders  and  take  up  a 
small  one  earlier  than  its  time  on  the  list;  or  the  finished 
hardware  is  still  in  the  factory,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
order  had  been  given  months  ahead  of  the  date  when  it  was 
likely  to  be  required.  Patience  is  an  excellent  virtue,  but  a 
rather  trying  one  for  the  owner  who  wants  his  building,  and 
for  the  contractor  who  needs  the  reserved  percentage  to  fill  a 
gap  elsewhere. 


CHAPTER  XI 
BUYING  OF  MATERIAL 

Modern  Ways.  —  Buy  cheap  and  sell  dear  is  the  old  motto ; 
but  buy  cheap  in  large  quantities  and  sell  cheap  is  the  one 
that  is  making  the  department  stores  and  mail  order  houses 
of  our  time  so  large.  This  system  has  revolutionized  things 
in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century.  The  country  stores  that  used 
to  charge  an  unreasonably  high  rate  of  profit  are  now  forced 
by  the  new  competition  to  keep  within  reasonable  bounds. 

Building  Material.  —  There  are  at  least  two  mail  order 
concerns  in  Chicago  that  send  all  kinds  of  ordinary  building 
material,  including  lumber  and  millwork,  anywhere  within 
the  borders  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Stone  and 
brick  are  not  sold  in  this  way  just  yet,  but  they  may  be  soon. 

Another  firm  in  Iowa  sends  lumber  and  millwork  anywhere. 

The  two  great  mail  order  houses  in  Chicago  recently  re- 
ceived 18,000,000  letters  in  one  year,  and  they  contained 
$77,000,000.  They  sent  out  4,000,000  catalogs.  Their  orders 
have  doubled  in  three  years.  They  are  worth  watching. 

High  Prices.  —  It  used  to  be  the  case  that  the  country 
builder  was  at  the  mercy  of  the  local  supply  houses,  but  now 
if  he  cannot  get  a  reasonable  figure  from  them  he  can  try 
Chicago  or  Iowa. 

A  Scale.  —  I  never  had  occasion  to  buy  from  these  great 
houses  except  once  as  a  trial  test.  An  architect's  scale,  for 
which  the  local  price  was  $2.50,  and  the  special  rate  to 
draftsmen,  $2,  I  got  for  $1.40.  It  had  the  same  maker's 
name  upon  it,  and  was  of  good  quality. 

Local  Interest.  —  Now,  it  is  much  better  for  contractors, 
farmers,  and  others  to  purchase  everything  they  can  from  the 
local  dealers,  for  a  gain  of  $50  in  a  lumber  bill  might  cause 
the  loss  of  a  contract  to  build  the  lumberman's  house,  but 
the  situation  is  such  now  that  no  one  need  pay  unreasonable 
prices,  and  that  should  be  understood. 

71 


72       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Cash.  —  But  all  dealings  with  these  supply  houses  have  to 
be  on  a  cash  basis.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  local  lum- 
berman will  frequently  discount  a  bill  two  per  cent.,  or  more, 
and  thus  cut  down  the  cost  of  the  lumber.  If  the  one  is 
priced  on  a  cash  basis  the  other  should  be  also. 

Method.  —  The  way  to  buy  building  material  then,  it  is 
clear,  is  to  follow  the  method  of  the  great  department  stores 
and  mail  order  houses,  and  buy  cheap  in  large  quantities. 
Advice  of  this  kind  is  like  telling  the  average  man  to  go  to 
Europe,  as  the  Atlantic  is  free  to  anybody.  Certain  con- 
ditions must  be  fulfilled  before  the  Atlantic  can  be  crossed; 
and  a  large  bank  account  is  necessary  to  buy  an  order  of 
corresponding  size. 

Monopoly.  —  It  used  to  be  rather  difficult  for  a  contractor 
to  get  a  car  of  lumber  or  millwork  directly  from  the  saw-  or 
planing-mill,  for  the  local  men  held  the  whip  over  the  railroad 
and  the  wholesale  dealer.  They  had  to  choose  between  the 
regular  demand  of  the  lumbermen  and  the  occasional  order 
of  the  tradesmen.  Naturally  they  stuck  to  their  best  cus- 
tomer. 

Stone.  —  This  material  is  now  manufactured  so  much  by 
saws  that  it  ordinarily  does  not  pay  the  contractor  to  have 
anything  to  do  with  cutting  it.  The  best  plan  is  to  go  to 
the  yards  and  purchase  it  ready  to  set  in  the  building. 
On  work  that  has  to  be  hand  cut,  however,  many  contractors 
follow  the  custom  of  cutting  the  stone  at  the  site  of  the 
building. 

Plumbing.  —  The  supplies  for  this  trade  are  sold  only  to 
the  men  in  the  business,  but  here,  again,  the  mail  order 
houses  break  the  chain  and  sell  to  anybody.  The  trouble 
in  some  cities  is  that  only  a  licensed  plumber  can  do  the 
work,  and  they  insist  upon  buying  the  supplies  themselves. 
There  is  a  profit  in  the  material. 

Bills  of  Material.  —  After  a  contract  is  signed  a  complete 
bill  of  material  should  be  made  out  for  those  parts  of  a 
building  that  are  not  to  be  sublet.  With  brickwork  or 
masonry  the  danger  is  not  so  great  if  more  than  what  is  called 
for  on  the  first  list  is  required,  for  the  brick  are  usually 
bought  at  so  much  per  thousand,  and  the  cement,  sand,  and 
lime  at  an  agreed  unit  price;  but  the  lumber  and  millwork 
bill  should  be  complete,  as  extras  run  higher  than  the  prices 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       73 

set  on  the  main  contract  when  the  dealer  is  naturally  anxious 
to  secure  the  trade.  Properly,  the  rate  for  extra  lumber 
should  not  be  higher  any  more  than  for  extra  brick.  If  so, 
why? 

Paint  supplies,  hardware,  and  such  items  should  be  bought 
in  one  bill  for  the  same  reason  that  better  rates  are  thus 
obtained. 

Quality.  —  Serious  trouble  is  sometimes  caused  on  account 
of  the  quality  of  the  material  sent  to  a  building.  Brick  and 
cement  are  sometimes  rejected  by  the  car-load;  lumber  is 
graded  differently  in  various  sections  of  the  country,  and  an 
architect's  specification  is  not  always  clear.  He  gets  con- 
fused with  the  grades  as  well  as  the  rest  of  us.  The  Forest 
Service,  Washington,  D.  C.,  sells  for  fifteen  cents  a  book  of 
126  good  sized  pages  entitled,  "  Rules  and  Specifications  for 
the  Grading  of  Lumber."  A  good  deal  can  be  packed  in  126 
pages,  and  our  memories  are  short. 

This  book  gives  the  grades  all  over  the  United  States,  and 
if  a  contractor  is  estimating  on  work  far  away  from  the 
field  to  which  he  is  accustomed  he  should  make  sure  of  the 
grading  of  the  lumber.  The  architect's  idea  and  his  own  may 
be  entirely  different. 

F.  0.  B.  —  In  buying  heavy  material  it  should  be  carefully 
understood  whether  the  price  is  at  the  point  of  purchase  or 
Free  On  Board,  that  is,  with  freight  paid,  at  the  job.  Some- 
times supply  men  send  cars  to  the  job,  and  the  contractor 
has  to  pay  the  freight,  to  be  later  deducted  from  the  sub- 
contractor's price.  This  means  that  the  contractor  must 
have  money  to  pay  with  before  he  gets  the  material  in  the 
cars. 

Point  of  Purchase  and  Time.  —  It  is  not  always  safe  to 
buy  materials  too  far  away  from  the  job,  especially  for  a 
time  contract.  The  dealer  does  not  usually  bind  himself  to 
time  as  you  do.  All  the  risk  he  takes  is  your  frown,  which 
does  not  amount  to  much. 

I  have  seen  buildings  stand  for  a  couple  of  months  waiting 
for  special  lumber  when  the  general  contractor  was  held  by  a 
time  contract.  The  penalties  are  not  usually  exacted,  but  a 
settlement  may  be  refused  until  some  deduction  is  made.  The 
owner  has  his  side  of  the  question  to  consider.  He  may  be 
paying  rent  that  he  expected  to  save. 


74       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Payment.  —  The  time  of  payment  to  dealers  should  be 
understood.  It  generally  is  when  the  contractor  gets  an 
estimate  on  the  material  supplied. 

Lien  Law.  —  The  danger  comes  when  the  time  for  filing  a 
lien  expires.  This  law  gives  the  dealer  security  on  the  build- 
ing, but  he  must  file  his  claim  in  a  certain  number  of  days 
after  the  delivery  of  material.  The  contractor  can  delay 
proceedings  by  ordering  a  2"  x  6"  scantling,  or  100  brick,  or  a 
sack  of  cement,  and  thus  bring  the  last  delivery  up  to  date. 
In  general,  dealers  are  reasonable  with  contractors,  for  their 
own  interest  makes  them  so,  apart  from  other  considerations. 


CHAPTER  XII 
BEST  PAYING  WORK 

Under  the  percentage  or  cost  plus  plans  all  work  pays  well. 
Here  we  deal  with  the  work  mostly  done  under  the  lump  sum 
system. 

Houses.  —  Beginning  with  dwellings,  the  ordinary  road  for 
a  journeyman  who  starts  contracting  is  to  small  business 
buildings,  and  from  these  on  to  larger  and  larger  ones. 

Details.  —  There  is  no  end  to  the  trouble  connected  with  the 
construction  of  private  houses.  From  the  time  the  brickwork 
begins  to  the  putting  on  of  the  hardware  there  are  many  de- 
tails to  attend  to.  Contractors  do  not  like  this  work  if  they 
can  get  a  plainer  kind.  Some  of  them  are  afraid  of  women, 
who  watch  the  new  houses  and  suggest  too  many  improvements. 

Competition.  —  As  almost  every  bricklayer  and  carpenter 
starts  on  this  class  of  work  the  competition  is  severe,  and  the 
prices  are  low. 

Brick  Stores  and  Flats  are  next,  and  are  much  more  de- 
sirable. There  are  fewer  competitors,  and  they  know  better 
what  work  costs.  Prices  are  consequently  a  little  higher,  and 
not  only  so,  but  the  details  are  practically  all  the  same. 
One  floor  after  another  is  laid  out  according  to  the  same  plan, 
much  less  watchfulness  is  thus  required,  and  the  risk  of 
mistakes  greatly  reduced. 

Schools  are  of  the  same  nature,  for  almost  every  room  is 
alike.  The  work  is  straight,  and  as  large  certified  checks  are 
often  required  with  bids,  this  keeps  out  some  undesirable 
competition  and  gives  an  opportunity  of  getting  a  better  price. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  making  out  a  bid  with  a 
certified  check,  for  in  case  of  mistake  it  is  sometimes  hard 
to  get  it  back,  and  as  the  bank  deducts  the  amount  from  the 
contractor's  account,  he  is  sometimes  likely  to  be  embarrassed 
for  ready  money  if  it  is  held  up  for  months.  In  state  and 
government  work  a  surety  bond  is  occasionally  called  for 

75 


76       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

instead  of  a  check,  and  the  cost  should  be  added  to  the 
estimate. 

Best  Work.  —  Then  come  business  buildings,  offices,  ware- 
houses, hotels,  and  such  structures.  This  is  really  the  best 
class  of  work  to  engage  in,  but  requires  capital.  The  struc- 
tures are  large  and  the  details  are  often  heavy  and  plain.  It  is 
all  straight  sailing,  for  brickwork,  cut  stone,  girders,  joists, 
doors,  windows,  and  steel  beams  are  all  about  the  same.  If 
the  work  is  in  the  popular  style  of  reinforced  concrete  con- 
struction there  is  likely  to  be  even  a  less  departure  from 
plainness,  as  that  is  almost  an  essential  part  of  such 
buildings. 

Undesirables.  —  Some  contractors  fight  shy  of  putting  up  a 
building  for  an  architect  while  others  are  fond  of  that  kind 
of  work,  which  would  seem  'to  indicate  that  there  are  men 
with  different  views  in  the  business. 

Contractors  have  also  a  kind  of  prejudice  against  church 
buildings.  They  have  to  pay  the  current  rates  for  material 
and  labor  on  churches  as  well  as  on  saloons  or  warehouses, 
but  somehow  the  building  committees  are  inclined  to  ask  for 
and  expect  cut  rates,  and  also  a  little  donation  for  the  good 
of  the  cause  in  settling  up. 

All  this  might  be  taken  as  a  part  of  the  day's  work,  but 
final  payments  are  often  unreasonably  delayed,  owing  to  the 
inability  to  collect  the  subscriptions  which  make  the  building 
possible. 

Contractors  cannot  afford  to  neglect  this  field,  however,  for 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  such  building  done.  During  the  first 
nine  months  of  1909,  for  example,  $13,000,000  worth  of 
churches  were  built  or  planned  in  the  fourteen  southern  states 
alone,  if  we  include  the  District  of  Columbia,  Oklahoma,  and 
Texas.  Ninety  were  built  in  the  latter  state,  at  a  cost  of 
$2,500,000.  There  are  many  steers  in  Texas,  but  also  quite  a 
few  churches. 

Capital.  —  In  purchasing  material  we  saw  that  the  rule 
is  very  plain.  It  is,  Buy  cheap  in  large  quantities.  It  is 
easy  enough  to  point  out  what  kind  of  work  pays  best  also, 
but  in  both  cases  a  good  sized  bank  account  is  required  before 
going  far. 

Jobbing.  —  There  is  a  large  field  here  for  those  who  like 
to  make  the  old  look  new.  Almost  all  buildings  need  to 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       77 

be  repaired  or  changed  in  course  of  time,  in  one  feature  or 
another.  Each  new  tenant  has  some  special  requirements. 

Customers.  —  If  a  good  class  of  owners  is  found  the  work 
pays  well  enough,  but  it  needs  more  attention  than  new  work, 
and  is  often  made  up  of  such  small  items  as  tries  the  patience. 
A  man  may  have  to  be  sent  several  miles  to  rehang  a  door 
or  plane  a  sash.  The  work  of  itself  is  probably  not  worth 
more  than  fifty  cents,  but  the  time  going  and  coming,  and 
the  necessary  profit  on  the  transaction  runs  up  a  bill  that  is 
often  unsatisfactory  to  the  owner. 

Slow  Progress.  —  Another  unpleasant  feature  is  that  jobbing 
is  different  from  new  work  in  the  time  taken.  At  the  end  of 
the  week  there  seems  to  be  far  too  little  done.  The  con- 
tractor cannot  help  this,  and  neither  can  the  men.  It  belongs 
to  the  nature  of  the  business. 

Collections.  —  Besides  other  troubles  there  is  often  too  much 
time  taken  in  collecting  a  small  bill.  Often  more  time  is 
wasted  than  the  profit  amounts  to. 

Yet,  with  all  its  disadvantages,  there  are  firms  in  large  cities 
that  do  nothing  else  than  jobbing,  and  they  make  it  pay  well. 
They  have  to  charge  high  prices,  and  consider  not  merely  the 
time  at  the  work  itself,  but  going  and  coming,  telephone  rent, 
shop  rent,  insurance,  and  everything  else  but  sentiment. 

Tips.  —  One  unpleasant  feature  of  the  business  in  very  large 
cities  is  the  necessity  for  tipping.  Some  of  the  underlings  in 
large  establishments  can  help  or  hinder  considerably,  and 
rather  than  be  annoyed  by  them  contractors  have  been 
known  to  slip  a  few  dollars  into  their  uneasy  palm  to  get 
the  work  done  quicker  and  cheaper. 

Prospects.  —  Some  good  contracts  may  come  through  the 
acquaintance  made  in  jobbing.  For  this  reason  many  keep 
on  with  the  work  even  when  they  do  not  expect  to  make  much 
profit  out  of  it  directly. 

Location.  —  A  shop  in  the  central  part  of  town  is  better 
than  one  on  the  outskirts,  but  now  that  we  have  telephones 
the  difference  is  not  so  great  as  formerly.  But  most  of  the 
trade  comes  from  the  thickly  settled  districts,  and  the  head- 
quarters should  be  near  them,  and  also  near  the  hardware 
and  other  stores. 

Government  Work.  —  Another  class  of  work  that  lies  outside 
the  field  of  the  ordinary  contractor  is  that  done  by  the 


78       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

national  government  or  state.  It  requires  more  capital  than 
many  have,  and  the  conditions  are  stricter  than  with  com- 
mercial building.  The  superintendent  has  more  power,  and 
there  is  less  chance  of  appealing  from  his  decision  with  suc- 
cess, and  none  to  take  the  injustice  to  law. 

It  often  happens  that  officers  of  the  army,  navy,  or  some 
other  branch  of  the  government  are  appointed  as  superintend- 
ents, and  they  are  better  acquainted  with  quite  a  few  other 
things  than  with  buildings.  There  is  an  excellent  field  here 
for  those  with  plenty  of  capital.  They  have  the  satisfaction 
of  putting  up  a  class  of  buildings  that  will  last,  and  the  com- 
petition is  with  men  who  usually  take  work  only  for  a  good 
price. 

Unchanged  Conditions.  —  The  government  must  treat  all 
alike,  and  thus  cannot  change  conditions  as  readily  as  a  private 
owner  can  do.  The  idea  is  to  do  the  work  according  to  the 
rules  laid  down  by  the  United  States,  as  represented  by  cer- 
tain humans  who  eat  bread  like  the  rest  of  us;  and  we  must 
put  in  bids  and  carry  through  the  contract  as  they  want  and 
not  as  we  think  best.  If  the  contractor  refuses  to  go  ahead 
the  government  will  put  men  in  to  finish  the  work  at  his 
expense  or  that  of  his  surety.  He  has  no  lien,  and  the  bond 
required  is  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  contract  price.  An 
amount  per  day  is  stated  as  liquidated  damages  in  case  the 
work  is  not  finished  in  time. 

Advantages.  —  On  the  other  hand,  the  plans  and  specifica- 
tions are  clear,  and  the  details  are  plentiful  and  complete; 
the  time  and  amount  of  payments  are  settled  beforehand 
and  sure;  and  the  reserve  is  usually  only  ten  per  cent.;  if 
the  contractor  really  gets  "  stuck  "  he  is  paid  for  the  materials 
delivered  on  the  ground  as  well  as  installed  in  the  building, 
in  order  to  help  him  out  with  ready  cash.  It  is  rather  a 
poor  idea  to  get  too  low  on  government  work,  however.  It 
should  either  be  figured  high  enough  to  cover  all  contingencies 
or  let  alone. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SPECULATIVE  BUILDING,  OR  READY-MADE 
HOUSES 

Dangers.  —  Many  people  now  buy  their  houses  as  they  buy 
their  clothes — ready-made.  They  make  their  money  begin  to 
draw  interest  or  save  rent  within  a  few  days  after  it  is  paid 
over  instead  of  waiting  for  several  months  before  the  house 
can  be  finished.  They  gain  by  this  course,  but  honest  con- 
tractors know  that  they  also  lose  something.  They  do  not 
know  the  quality  of  the  material  in  the  house  and  whether 
there  is  enough  of  it  in  places  that  are  covered;  and  the 
painter  has  often  to  be  called  back  in  rather  too  brief  a 
period. 

Profit.  —  Some  contractors  make  fortunes  in  this  line  of 
work.  They  are  subject  to  no  owner's  whims  and  interfer- 
ences; and  in  general  they  are  independent  of  an  architect. 
If  they  do  hire  one  they  can  set  aside  his  ideas  whenever  they 
are  so  disposed. 

Method.  —  The  method  followed  by  many  in  cities  is  to  buy 
cheap  lots  and  borrow  money  from  the  loan  association  to 
erect  the  building.  The  purchaser  usually  pays  to  the  builder 
the  whole  selling  price,  less  the  loan  from  the  association, 
which  he  assumes.  The  builder,  with  his  money  in  his  pocket, 
is  then  free  to  go  elsewhere  and  erect  another  house,  or  several. 

The  purchaser  pays  $1.10  per  hundred  dollars  of  the  loan 
per  month.  This  extinguishes  principal  and  interest  in  about 
ten  years.  Thus  if  the  amount  borrowed  was  $1,000  the 
monthly  rate  would  be  $11.  Most  of  the  loans  are  paid  in 
about  seven  years. 

Expenses.  —  Of  course  the  owner  has  to  take  care  of  the 
house,  pay  the  taxes,  repairs,  and  other  expenses,  and  he  has 
also  to  stand  the  usual  depreciation  of  property.  Nevertheless, 
tens  of  thousands  of  people  get  homes  in  just  this  way,  and 
there  is  thus  a  large  field  for  a  builder. 

79 


80       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Cheap  Work.  —  One  of  the  best  equipments  of  a  speculative 
builder  is  an  easy  conscience.  There  are  some  of  them  who 
do  good  work,  but  most  of  it  is  of  an  inferior  quality.  They 
paper  the  walls,  however,  and  thus  hide  some  defects. 

If  this  class  of  building  is  well  done  it  will  cost  just  as 
much  as  that  built  under  other  methods,  and  the  price  will 
have  to  be  raised  to  suit.  The  idea  in  buying  these  houses  is 
too  often  to  get  a  cheap  bargain,  and  the  house  itself  has  to 
suffer. 

Buying.  —  Here  the  caution  about  buying  material,  given  in 
another  chapter,  is  applicable.  It  is  to  buy  cheap  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  speculative  builder  usually  does  buy  cheap,  and  hire 
lower  priced  men  than  the  large  builder  is  allowed  to  on 
account  of  the  labor  unions.  Most  building  of  this  kind  is 
done  by  a  volunteer  force,  as  it  were,  and  not  by  the  regulars; 
and  the  conditions  that  are  almost  forced  upon  the  larger 
contractors  do  not  usually  apply  to  the  builders  of  ready- 
made  houses. 

Risk.  —  There  is  the  risk  that  the  houses  may  not  sell.  One 
sees  some  that  stand  for  a  whole  year  vacant  and  unsold. 
The  monthly  payments  to  the  loan  company  have  still  to  be 
kept  up,  however.  The  contractor  who  is  short  of  money 
ought  to  be  sure  of  his  sales  before  going  too  deep. 

Real  Estate  Men.  —  Some  real  estate  firms  do  a  very  large 
business  in  this  line,  but  they  have  better  facilitie.s  for  making 
sales  than  a  builder,  for  it  does  not  pay  him  to  sell  through 
others  and  thus  cut  the  commission  out  of  his  profits. 

Abstract.  —  As  the  customers  of  a  speculative  builder  are 
almost  sure  to  ask  for  an  abstract  of  title,  no  land  should 
be  bought  without  one  brought  up  to  date.  It  is  better  to 
have  the  title  guaranteed  by  a  company  that  makes  a  business 
of  doing  this  work.  This,  however,  is  one  of  the  things  that 
is  usually  left  undone. 

Lot  Values.  —  In  buying  property  it  should  be  remembered 
that  lots  in  an  ordinary  residence  section  never  increase  be- 
yond a  limited  value.  Where  houses  are  built  close  together, 
as  in  the  poorer  sections  of  a  city,  the  price  of  the  lots  after 
reaching  a  certain  figure  remains  there.  The  trolley  car  gives 
a  chance  of  a  better  lot  further  out  for  less  money. 

location.  —  The  character  of  the  neighborhood  should  also 
determine  to  a  large  extent  the  cost  of  the  building.  Roughly 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       81 

speaking,  the  following  table  gives  an  approximate  idea  of 
what  the  value  of  a  residence  should  be  in  proportion  to  that 
of  a  lot. 

LAND  FRONTAGE  COST   OF  RESIDENCE 

$    250  30  ft.  $1,000   to  $1,500 

500  30  ft.  1,800   to  2,500 

1,000  40  ft.  3,000   to  4,000 

1,500  50  ft.  4,500   to  5,500 

2,000  50  ft.  6,000   to  8,000 

Tract  of  Land.  —  The  speculative  builder  who  can  work  on  a 
large  enough  scale  can  determine  the  character  of  a  whole 
neighborhood  by  buying  a  sufficient  acreage  to  control  the 
development  himself.  This  is  where  large  profits  are  often 
made,  not  merely  on  the  cost  of  the  houses,  but  on  the  rise 
of  the  land  in  value.  In  this  field,  as  in  so  many  others,  the 
man  with  money  can  make  money. 

Depreciation.  —  If  a  contractor  puts  up  a  building  for  rent 
he  should  remember  that  there  is  a  law  of  depreciation. 
From  iy2  to  3  per  cent,  has  to  be  charged  off  the  value  of 
the  property,  and  repairs,  insurance,  and  taxes  have  to  be 
considered.  When  the  probable  vacancies  are  taken  into  ac- 
count, the  net  return  is  not  so  much  more  than  can  be  had 
by  investing  in  city  bonds  or  mortgages,  which  mean  less 
trouble. 

Houses,  we  know,  should  not  decay  so  soon  as  they  do,  if 
they  are  well  built  and  taken  care  of,  but  we  have  to  average 
things  up  in  general,  and  remember  that  no  one  takes  as 
good  care  of  your  house  as  you  do  yourself. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
OFFICE  EQUIPMENT 

Growth.  —  The  city  of  Omaha  in  which  I  write  has  about 
125,000  people,  not  including  South  Omaha  with  about  26,000 
more.  The  first  postmaster  of  Omaha  died  only  a  few  years 
ago,  and  his  office  was  in  his  hat.  He  used  to  carry  around 
the  letters  for  the  town  there,  and  hand  them  to  his  con- 
stituents as  they  met.  In  this  case  a  big  head  would  have 
been  a  better  equipment  than  it  usually  is. 

Many  a  contractor  of  our  day  has  an  office  in  his  inside 
pocket.  He  is  afraid  to  use  the  hat  around  a  building.  This 
means  that  a  good  deal  of  business  may  be  conducted  on  a 
very  small  equipment.  It  is  but  right  that  we  should  start 
out  on  that  basis. 

System.  —  The  "  system  "  men  are  hard  at  work  after  even 
the  small  contractor.  It  is  well,  but  do  not  spend  $1.43y2 
to  keep  track  of  98  cents.  It  does  not  pay.  Too  much  system 
is  like  having  ten  trowels  to  lay  1,000  brick.  All  system  and 
no  results  comes  to  be  like  a  Spanish  dinner — all  tablecloth, 
and  nothing  to  eat. 

Somewhere  between  the  style  that  carries  everything  in  its 
hat  and  the  other  that  works  by  too  many  rules  is  about  right. 
A  top  heavy  system  is  out  of  place  for  a  light  business. 
When  working  on  a  plant  for  railroad  shops  I  saw  that  the 
Motive  Power  people  put  in  100-ton  cranes  to  lift  locomotives 
and  carry  them  to  any  place  desired.  Some  heavy  cranes 
have  what  are  called  auxiliary  hoists  to  take  up  light  weights. 
It  does  not  pay  to  turn  on  the  power  for  a  100-ton  crane  to 
lift  a  wheelbarrow.  Paving  stones  should  not  be  used  to  kill 
flies,  nor  sledges  to  drive  a  tack;  and  neither  should  the  small 
office  be  run  on  the  same  lines  as  the  large  one. 

Beginning.  —  Begin  on  the  auxiliary  hoist  business,  and 
nothing  will  hinder  you  from  looking  forward  to  the  time 
when  you  will  be  a  100-ton  contractor  with  a  splendid  system 
made  out  to  suit  your  own  wants. 

82 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       83 

Stationery.  —  About  the  first  thing  needed,  even  in  a  small 
business,  is  some  printed  matter — envelopes,  letterheads,  and 
cards.  A  fairly  good  quality  of  material  should  be  used,  but 
nothing  too  expensive.  In  spite  of  the  paper  manufacturers, 
and  the  printers,  contractors  know  that  the  size  of  the  bid  is 
the  main  thing,  and  not  the  kind  of  paper  it  is  made  out  on. 

Safety:  Exchange.  —  If  an  office  can  be  afforded  to  begin 
with,  it  is  a  good  idea  to  get  one  in  a  fireproof  building. 
Rents  are  high  in  such  places,  and  all  over  the  country  con- 
tractors have  found  it  a  good  plan  to  join  together  in  an 
exchange  where  there  is  plenty  of  room  and  each  one  gets  a 
mail  box.  The  average  builder  has  to  spend  too  much  time 
on  his  outside  work  to  require  a  large  office.  An  exchange 
satisfies  his  requirement  better  than  an  individual  office  would, 
for  there  is  always  a  secretary  to  attend  the  telephone,  and  it 
serves  as  a  meeting  place  with  subcontractors,  and  thus  saves 
time.  The  cost  is  much  less  than  on  the  individual  system. 

It  is  also  a  safe  place  to  keep  records  if  the  building  is 
fireproof. 

Books.  —  Another  advantage  of  an  exchange  is  that  a  good 
library  can  be  looked  through  to  settle  any  trade  question  or 
get  information.  Not  that  a  library  will  help  a  contractor 
to  make  more  money;  in  fact,  in  spite  of  the  college  advertise- 
ments, it  is  probably  true,  as  a  well-known  stone  mason  said 
nearly  a  century  ago,  that  the  fewer  books  a  man  is  acquainted 
with,  the  more  money  he  is  likely  to  make.  He  concentrates 
his  mind  on  one  subject  instead  of  spreading  his  attention  over 
many.  The  real  money-maker  is  like  a  hog — he  roots  always 
in  the  ground.  His  snout  is  not  turned  after  air  castles. 
When  a  crown  is  presented  to  him  in  the  heaven  that  all  good 
contractors  are  going  to,  he  will  be  caught,  as  usual,  looking 
down  and  not  up,  looking  in  and  not  out,  and  thus  reversing 
the  good  Chautauqua  motto,  and  shaming  the  trade. 

But  the  trade  books  save  time,  and  this  is  as  good  as  money. 
There  are  "  Sweet's  Index,"  "  Arthur's  Estimator,"  many  lum- 
ber reckoners,  and  other  valuable  tools  of  trade.  For  example, 
there  is  an  "  Expeditious  Measurer,"  by  Nash,  that  gives  the 
cubic  contents  of  stones  of  all  sizes.  It  is  a  time  saver 
for  those  who  have  to  figure  up  stone  in  the  usual  way. 

This  is  an  age  of  electricity,  vacuum  cleaners,  flying  ships, 
and  many  other  wonders,  and  why  waste  your  brain  matter 


84       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

figuring  up  stone,  lumber  or  plaster  if  someone  had  tabulated 
it  all  for  you?  I  once  bought  a  lumber  reckoner  with  tables 
figured  up  to  100  pieces,  and  instead  of  doing  the  work  myself 
I  merely  turned  over  to  the  right  page.  To  figure  up  stone 
by  the  duodecimal  or  any  other  method,  and  lumber  in  the 
usual  way  is  like  carrying  up  brick  in  a  hod.  We  now  use 
motors  and  hoists. 

Dictionary.  —  A  good  unabridged  dictionary  is  sometimes 
useful.  In  cities  we  see  old  editions  sold  for  a  dollar. 

A  Thousand  Authors.  —  Every  contractor  should  write  a 
book  of  his  own.  It  would  be  called  a  Price  Book.  Prices 
would  be  jotted  down  and  dated,  and  in  course  of  time  a 
book  of  this  kind  would  be  valuable,  especially  when  one  went 
away  from  home  and  catalogs,  or  had  to  make  an  approximate 
estimate  for  an  architect  on  plans  that  could  not  be  taken 
out  of  his  office.  The  removable  leaf  book  is  an  improvement 
upon  the  ordinary  style. 

Equipment.  —  There  is  no  limit  to  what  might  be  purchased, 
and  the  system  men  are  making  matters  worse  every  day. 
A  contractor  could  soon  make  a  showroom  of  his  office  if  he 
bought  everything  that  was  recommended  to  him. 

More  Safety.  —  Most  of  them,  ho\vever,  if  they  do  not  have 
an  office  in  a  fireproof  building,  should  have  a  safe,  or  at 
least  a  safety  deposit  vault  which  costs  only  from  $3  to  $5 
per  year.  Is  it  worth  while  to  risk  valuable  papers  for  such 
a  small  amount? 

We  might  change  the  form  of  the  old  question  and  ask, 
When  is  a  safe  not  a  safe?  The  answer  would  be,  When  it 
gets  into  a  fire,  if  we  accept  the  U.  S.  Government  report  at 
San  Francisco.  The  tenants  would  have  been  better  without 
safes,  according  to  the  expert.  They  merely  gave  a  false  feeling 
of  security.  He  says,  "  The  only  vaults  I  saw  that  came 
through  a  really  fierce  fire  without  damage  were  those  built 
of  brickwork.  Even  these  vaults  did  not  always  protect  their 
contents,  however."  The  same  thing  happened  at  Baltimore. 

Safe  Vaults.  —  I  have  drawn  plans  for  vaults  with  two 
9-inch  walls  and  an  air  space  between,  and  considered  them 
safe  enough,  but  not  since  reading  the  San  Francisco  report. 
Each  wall  ought  to  be  at  least  13  inches  thick,  laid  in  Portland 
cement  mortar,  with  a  2-inch  air  space.  The  roof  should  have 
13-inch  arches  covered  with  heavy  concrete.  This  would  cost 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       85 

probably  4100  extra  on  a  fair  sized  vault,  but  why  build  one 
at  all  unless  it  is  to  be  safe? 

Raising  the  Limit.  —  When  we  draw  a  check  we  limit  the 
amount,  but  there  are  men  whose  business  is  to  raise  our 
limit.  They  change  the  figures  and  the  writing.  It  is  some- 
times easily  done.  They  even  perforate  more  figures,  in  front 
or  behind  those  already  on  the  check.  Perforated  checks  are 
at  least  an  additional  safeguard,  but  cases  have  been  known 
where  the  perforations  have  been  filled. 

Limit  Line.  —  The  best  device  for  preventing  check  raising 
seems  to  be  a  limit  line,  such  as,  Not  over  twenty  dollars. 
When  acid  proof  ink  is  pressed  into  the  slits  that  are  cut  out 
it  is  practically  impossible  to  change  the  figures. 

Risk.  —  The  danger  is  greater  than  is  imagined.  In  1908 
the  sum  of  $5,000,000  was  stolen  by  this  means.  A  cypher 
added  to  7  makes  70,  and  ty  put  on  the  end  of  seven  makes 
the  job  complete.  Yet  the  treasurer  of  a  large  railroad  com- 
pany told  me  in  October,  1910,  that  he  had  never  seen  a  raised 
check  presented  among  tens  of  thousands  of  good  ones. 

Examples.  —  In  1903  a  check  drawn  for  $100  was  raised  to 
$8,100.  The  man  who  drew  it  found  his  account  $8,000  short 
at  the  end  of  the  month.  He  sued  the  bank,  but  the  courts 
held  against  him.  That  experience  cost  him  $8,000  and  legal 
expenses. 

The  law  is  that  the  bank  is  responsible  for  the  payment  of 
a  forged  check,  but  not  for  a  check  correctly  signed.  If  the 
amount  has  been  raised  that  is  held  to  be  owing  to  the  careless- 
ness of  the  man  who  drew  the  check.  He  should  have  pro- 
tected himself. 

In  another  case,  interesting  to  contractors,  a  Chicago  cement 
company  drew  a  check  and  had  it  certified  for  $27,  and  it  was 
raised  to  $27,000.  It  was  dated  January  29,  1909.  The  check 
raisers  then  drew  $17,000  from  the  account.  In  this  check 
after  "  Twenty-seven  "  a  long  blank  space  was  left,  and  then 
"  and  no. "  in  the  usual  way.  In  the  space  considerately  left 
for  him  before  the  "  and,"  the  artist  merely  put  "  Thous.,"  and 
this,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  spelling  book,  made  "  Thou- 
sand." There  was  also  a  space  left  between  the  $27  and  the 
£fo,  and  it  was  filled  in  with  "000,"  which  made  every- 
thing correct  according  to  Hoyle,  the  great  authority  on 
banking. 


86       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

In  the  $100  check  the  same  method  was  followed.  Too 
much  space  was  left  between  the  $  and  the  100,  and  the  8 
just  fitted.  The  writing  "  One  hundred,"  instead  of  being 
kept  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  left  hand  end  of  the  check 
was  put  in  the  center,  and  a  long  line  drawn  before,  as  well 
as  after  it.  Part  of  the  line  was  removed  with  acid,  pre- 
sumably, or  probably  with  ordinary  ink  eradicator,  and 
"  Eighty  "  filled  in.  This  is  the  new  "  Black  Art." 

Paper.  —  We  are  told  that  no  kind  of  paper  protects  against 
this  work.  Burglary  used  to  be  the  favorite  way  of  getting 
money  illegally, — that  is,  outside  the  realms  of  "  high  finance," 
— but  forgery  and  check  raising  have  taken  the  place  of  that 
risky  business.  Only  a  few  years  ago  there  used  to  be  more 
cases  of  burglary  than  forgery;  in  1908  there  were  seven  cases 
of  forgery  and  check  raising  to  one  of  burglary.  Like  light- 
ning, this  affliction  might  never  affect  you,  but  it  might  strike 
to-morrow. 

Drawing  Checks.  —  While  the  artists  seem  to  be  hard  to  beat 
we  might  at  least  observe  a  few  ordinary  precautions  in  draw- 
ing checks,  and  not  lead  them  into  temptation. 

First  of  all,  write  heavily.  Do  not  make  a  check  payable 
to  bearer  if  it  can  be  avoided.  It  may  be  lost;  it  may  get 
into  strange  hands. 

Do  not  leave  a  blank  space  after  the  name  so  that  "  or 
bearer "  may  be  added.  Either  spread  the  name  out  to  fill 
the  space  or  use  heavy  lines. 

Put  the  figures  as  closely  after  the  $  mark  as  they  will  go. 
Write  them  so  closely  together  that  "  1  "  cannot  be  put  in 
between.  After  the  amount  put  the  fraction  hard  against  it, 
and  put  it  "plumb."  Thus  it  would  be  ^,  ^,  ^V,  or 
whatever  the  figure  was,  and  not  no/100,  13/100,  87/100.  In 
the  last  style  the  figures  before  the  100  might  be  erased  and 
give  room  for  one  or  two  to  be  added  to  the  main  amount. 

Of  course,  after  all  is  said,  we  must  remember  that  ordinary 
ink  can  easily  be  taken  off.  The  old  joke  used  to  be  "  Every- 
thing is  burnt  except  the  policy,"  and  the  new  trouble  is  that 
everything  can  be  taken  off  except  the  signature.  How  is  a 
banker  to  know  that  you  do  not  have  a  clerk  to  fill  out  the 
body  of  the  check,  as  many  have,  and  leave  only  the  signature 
for  yourself?  The  difference  in  writing  is  no  guide  for  him. 
The  signature  only  counts. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       87 

Machine.  —  A  limiting  machine  costs  about  $30  to  $35-  All 
Builders'  Exchanges  might  easily  have  one. 

Procuring.  —  Sometimes  the  mail  boxes  of  a  business  district 
are  rifled  to  get  checks;  and  pay  checks  for  workmen  fall  into 
other  hands  than  those  they  are  meant  for.  This  is  one  of 
the  disadvantages  of  paying  by  check.  When  you  give  a  check 
to  a  business  firm  you  know  that  it  will  go  straight  from  it 
to  the  bank,  but  it  is  different  with  the  others. 

An  Ohio  bank  gave  a  stranger  a  draft  for  $10,  and  had  to 
pay  $10,000,  and  "go  busted."  A  bank  in  Chicago  paid 
$15,000  on  a  western  draft  that  was  made  out  for  $3. 

Files.  —  A  few  cases  for  letters  are  desirable.  They  do  not 
take  up  much  room,  and  letters  filed,  preferably  according  to 
subject,  are  easily  found.  Of  course,  when  there  are  many 
dealings  with  one  particular  firm,  they  might  be  filed  under 
its  name. 

When  a  letter  is  taken  out  for  some  time,  a  "  dummy  "  should 
be  substituted,  with  date  and  name  or  initials  of  one  who 
received  it.  In  large  offices  only  one  person  is  allowed  to 
touch  the  files,  so  that  letters  and  drawings  may  not  be 
misplaced.  In  an  office  where  there  are  several  thousand  draw- 
ings and  as  many  letters,  one  put  in  the  wrong  place  may 
mean  a  search  of  days. 

System.  —  It  would  save  much  trouble  when  writing  to  large 
firms  with  several  departments  to  use  a  different  letter  for 
each  subject.  One  envelope  might  be  used  for  several  letters, 
if  necessary,  but  an  order  for  toilet  soap  should  not  be  put 
on  the  same  page  as  one  for  millwork.  Elsewhere  it  is  stated 
that  two  mail  order  houses  received  18,000,000  letters  in  a 
year.  Those  who  have  seen  the  great  plants  in  Chicago  know 
that  they  carry  on  an  immense  business.  One  department 
opens  the  letters,  but  they  have  to  be  distributed  among  many, 
and  it  is  better  to  address  the  right  one.  So  with  railroads, 
wholesale  houses,  and  other  great  establishments.  If  you  wish 
to  save  time  send  your  communication  to  the  right  place. 

Then  with  hundreds  and  thousands  of  letters  to  file,  large 
firms  have  numbers  or  alphabet  letters  to  guide  them  to  the 
filing  case.  In  replying  to  any  such  letters  reference  should 
be  made  to  the  number  or  whatever  it  is.  How  would  you 
like  to  search  through  such  files  to  get  the  original  letters  to 
which  yours  is  the  reply?  Probably  you  waited  two  months 


88       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

before  answering.  But  if  you  put  down  the  signs  at  the  head 
of  their  letter — X — D,  2385 — they  will  place  you  in  three 
seconds. 

Typewriter.  —  As  already  noted,  the  amount  of  the  bid  is 
what  counts,  and  not  the  quality  of  the  paper  or  the  Spencerian 
brand  of  the  writing;  and  while  a  typewriter  is  desirable  for 
making  out  bids,  etc.,  it  is  not  really  necessary.  Nevertheless, 
it  looks  "  business-like,"  and  $25  will  buy  a  second-hand  one. 

Copy.  —  By  using  a  machine,  a  carbon  copy  may  be  made  of 
all  bids  and  important  correspondence.  It  does  not  need  the 
court  records  to  inform  us  that  human  memory  is  short.  A 
short  record  is  valuable,  and  carbon  copies  are  easily  made. 

An  Adding  Machine  is  not  seen  so  often  as  it  should  be. 
For  some  years,  in  a  railroad  office,  I  was  one  myself.  A 
few  departments  get  expensive  machines  and  merely  press  a 
key  to  get  a  column  of  correct  figures,  but  builders  are  not 
among  the  elect.  There  are  machines  which  sell  for  several 
hundred  dollars  and  others  for  $25.  Addition  is  a  dangerous 
thing  for  a  contractor  to  trifle  with. 

Card  Index.  —  Under  proper  conditions  a  card  index  is  use- 
ful. It  can  be  made  a  permanent  Price  Book  that  has  to  stay 
in  the  office  of  the  contractor. 

There  are  contractors  who  have  a  great  deal  of  information 
in  their  possession,  but  they  cannot  find  it.  It  is  buried  in 
the  mass  of  dead  records.  When  Oliver  Goldsmith  got  some 
money,  he  used  to  roll  the  gold  pieces  around  his  room  so 
that  some  of  them  might  fall  into  the  chinks  of  the  floor,  or 
behind  the  rotten  wainscoting.  Then  when  he  ran  short  of 
money,  he  went  down  on  his  knees  and  searched.  When  he 
found  a  coin  he  rejoiced  with  great  joy.  Many  contractors 
are  like  Oliver.  They  get  valuable  information  and  scatter  it 
they  don't  know  where.  Then  comes  the  search.  There  is  a 
better  way. 

Telephone.  —  A  "  phone  "  is  usually  considered  necessary  in 
these  days.  When  the  builders  join  together  in  an  exchange 
one  phone  serves  for  the  whole  crowd. 


CHAPTER  XV 
BOOKKEEPING 

Learning. — During  the  evenings  of  one  winter  I  went  to  a 
business  college  to  learn  the  art  of  keeping  books.  The  system 
followed  was  double  entry.  I  used  it  for  several  years,  and 
found  it  to  work  well,  but  there  is  more  trouble  connected 
with  it  than  is  altogether  agreeable  for  a  busy  contractor  who 
cannot  hire  a  clerk. 

The  Trial  Balance  has  to  be  taken  off  whenever  a  squaring 
up  is  desired,  and  Justice  with  the  scales  in  her  hand  is  not 
more  exacting  than  a  trial  balance  in  double  entry  bookkeeping. 
Much  time  is  wasted  in  hunting  for  the  few  cents  that  seem 
to  be  anywhere  but  where  they  should  be. 

There  is  a  book  entitled,  "  Fifty  Rules  for  Errors  in  Trial 
Balances,"  and  a  five-foot  shelf  might  be  filled  with  others 
on  the  same  absorbing  question.  What  requires  so  much  elab- 
oration and  attention  is  too  complicated  for  a  man  who  has  a 
gang  of  tradesmen  waiting  for  him.  It  does  not  pay  to  lose 
$10  to  get  an  error  of  5  cents  rectified. 

Theorists.  —  The  business  colleges  give  too  much  detail. 
What  is  needed  is  a  simpler  system  than  they  teach.  The 
question  is  not,  "How  much  clerical  work  can  I  use?"  but 
"  How  little  can  I  get  along  with  ? "  Now,  the  double  entry 
system  is  the  best  to  be  had,  for  it  checks  as  it  goes.  The 
accounts  must  balance.  But  a  small  contractor  does  not  need 
it,  and  probably  nine  out  of  ten  use  a  simpler  method.  All 
that  is  required  is  a  system  of  record,  and  sharp  eyes  can  see 
that  the  balance  is  maintained,  although  there  is  no  check  as 
in  the  double  system. 

Variety.  —  There  are  a  thousand  and  one  variations  of  the 
systems.  Each  business  house  has  some  pet  one  of  its  own. 
What  is  set  forth  below  is  merely  for  a  suggestion.  Each 
one  can  figure  out  something  for  his  own  use  that  may  be 
better  or  worse. 


90       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

A  Type.  —  For  an  illustration  of  a  record  system  one  build- 
ing will  do  as  well  as  another.  What  serves  for  a  $2,000  one 
will  also  work  for  another  that  costs  $200,000.  Let  us  take 
one  at  $2,300,  as  fewer  figures  will  be  needed  than  with  a 
more  expensive  structure. 

We  shall  assume  that  the  general  contractor  takes  this 
frame  house  in  the  way  they  are  often  taken,  that  is,  including 
everything  except  plumbing  and  heating. 

Opening  of  the  Books.  —  This  is  supposed  to  be  something 
dreadfully  mysterious.  WThen  his  sister  asked  the  little  boy 
for  the  core  of  the  apple,  he  replied,  "  There  ain't  goin'  to  be 
no  core."  So  here,  there  ain't  goin'  to  be  no  opening. 

Put  your  name  and  address  at  the  beginning  of  the  books 
that  they  may  be  identified,  deposit  your  money  in  the  bank, 
which  gives  a  bank  book  as  a  record  of  cash  on  hand,  and  the 
books,  and  you  are  ready  for  business.  We  proceed  as  below, 
after  supposing  the  contractor  to  be  as  far  along  as  his  14th 
contract.  The  1st  or  the  50th  would  be  handled  in  the  same 
way. 

Day  Book.  —  First  of  all,  the  contractor  should  have  a  Day 
Book,  or  Blotter,  in  which  he  should  set  down  EVERY 
item.  Ink  should  be  used,  if  possible,  but  pencil  is  often 
made  to  serve.  Pencil  marks  can  be  erased,  however,  and 
an  erasure  should  never  be  seen  in  a  set  of  books,  on  any 
system.  If  a  mistake  is  made,  a  line  should  be  drawn 
through  it,  so  that  the  writing  may  still  be  seen,  and  no 
erasing  done,  or  the  judge  in  court  will  hold  against  the 
records. 

A  Ledger  is  also  required,  and  that  is  all.  After  the  con- 
tractor gets  further  along  he  can  start  a  double  entry  system 
with  Day  Book,  Journal,  Cash  Book,  and  Ledger. 

Cash.  —  It  is  a  good  idea  to  keep  all  cash  transactions 
separate,  and  a  column  is  used  for  that  purpose. 

Contract  No.  14.  —  Suppose,  then,  that  a  carpenter  contrac- 
tor receives  a  contract  for  building  a  house  for  J.  B.  Phidias. 
The  Uniform  Contract  is  used,  and  that  is  a  good  record. 
Indeed,  when  we  consider  bank  book  record,  contract  records, 
bids,  monthly  statements  of  dealers,  and  time  book,  we  could 
almost  safely  follow  the  plan  that  some  pride  themselves  upon, 
and  keep  no  books.  We  might  let  the  others,  who  have  more 
time,  do  that  for  us. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       91 

Starting.  —  On  any  page  of  the  Day  Book,  and  on  any  side, 
if  it  is  wide  enough  for  a  double  column,  we  can  begin  to 
make  our  entries.  If  one  side  is  not  wide  enough  to  hold  the 
two  columns,  we  can  carry  the  writing  clear  across  to  the 
other.  If  you  open  an  ordinary  book,  you  will  see  that 
printers  always  put  the  even  numbers  of  the  page  on  the  left 
hand  side,  and  the  odd  on  the  right,  just  as  in  this  book,  for 
example.  We  should  open  the  Day  Book  and  make  our  entry 
on  the  even  number  side,  and  carry  it  across  to  the  odd 
number  side,  in  case  the  one  page  was  not  wide  enough  for  the 
two  columns.  This  looks  plain  enough. 

CONTRACT  NO.    14 

Nov.  2,  1909.  Signed  Contract  No.  14 

with  J.  B.  Phidias $2,300.00 

"  "  "  Bought  lumber  for  No.  14 

from  M.  A.  Pinchot 430.00 

"  "  "  Signed  Uniform  Subcon- 
tract for  masonry  on 
No.  14  with  B.  A.  Brick  240.00 

"  "  "  Let  contract  for  excavation 
on  No.  14  to  J.  P. 
Trench  at  30  cents  per 

yd- 

"       "        "        Let  contract   for  millwork 

on  No.  14  to  O.  F.  Osh- 

kosh  200.00 

"  3  "  Signed  U.  Subcontract  for 

plaster  on  No.    14  with 

R.  S.  Acme 149.50 

"  "  "  Bought  bill  hardware  on 

No.  14  from  E.  F.  Sar- 

geant  59.50 

"  "  "  Signed  U.  Subcontract  for 

paint  on  No.  14  with  0. 

B.  Murillo  151.00 

"  "  "  Let  contract  for  electric 

wiring  on  No.  14  to  W.  A. 

Ampere  36.00 

"  "  "  Let  tin  work  on  No.  14  to 

O.  S.  Taylor    43.00 


92       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


Nov.  3,   1909.      Bought  mantel  and  hearth 
set  for  No.   14  from  O. 

N.   Nelson    $48.00 

"       6        "        Paid  for  carpenters'  wages 

on  No.   14    $  16.40 

"     13        "        Paid  for  carpenters'  wages 

on  No.    14 43.20 

"       "        "        Paid  B.  A.  Brick  on  No. 

14    100.00 

"     20        "        Paid  for  carpenters'  wages 

on  No.   14    48.00 

1    "     25        "        Rec'd  from  J.   B.   Phidias 

on  No.  14 320.00 

"27        "        Paid  for  carpenters'  wages 

on   No.    14 30.20 

"  30  "  Paid  J.  P.  Trench  for  ex- 
cavation on  No.  14  in 
full,  100  yds.  at  30  cents  30.00 

"       "        "        Paid  to  M.  A.  Pinchot  on 

No.    14 100.00 

Dec.  4,   1909.     Paid  for  carpenters'  wages 

on  No.   14 34.10 

"  7  "  Agreed  on  price  of  Extra 
No.  1,  on  No.  14  with 
J.  B.  Phidias  (masonry 

at    stair) 34.20 

"     "        "        Gave    stair   extra    masonry 

on  No.  14  to  B.  A.  Brick  24.30 

"     "        "        Bought        office        supplies 

(charge  to  No.  14)    1.05 

"11       "         Paid  for  carpenters'  wages 

on  No.   14 27.80 

"    17       "         Paid  B.  A.  Brick  on  No.  14  68.00 

"    18       "         Paid   carpenters'   wages   on 

No.    14 21.00 

"    24       "        Rec'd  from  J.  B.  Phidias  on 

No.    14 450.00 

"     "       "        Paid    M.    A.     Pinchot    on 

No.    14 120.00 

"    "       "        Paid    carpenters'  wages  on 

No.  14  .  21.00 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       93 

Dec.  31,  1909.    Paid  for  express  on  No.  14  $     1.30 

"     "        "         Bought    extra    lumber    on 
No.   14  as  per  bill  rec'd 

from  M.  A.  Pinchot $13.20 

Jan.  4,  1910.     Paid  R.  S.  Acme  for  plaster 

on  No.    14 100.00 

"     8       "         Paid    carpenters'    wages    on 

No.  14    16.40 

"13       "         Rec'd  from  J.  B.  Phidias  on 

No.    14    380.00 

"     "      "        Paid  O.  F.  Oshkosh  on  No.  14  100.00 

"     "       "  "      O.  S.  Taylor  on  No.  14  35.00 

"     "      "  «      W.  A.  Ampere  on  No. 

14  30.00 

"     "       "  "      O.  B.  Murillo 70.00 

"     "       "  "      E.    F.    Sargeant 20.00 

"     "       "        Deducted  from  B.  A.  Brick 

contract    on    No.    14    for 

basement    floor 17.00 

"     "       "        Deducted  for  change  in  base- 
ment  floor   from  contract 

on    No.     14    with    J.    B. 

Phidias 15.00 

"15       "        Paid   for   carpenters'   wages 

on   No.    14..- 85.00 

"  22       "        Paid  for   carpenters'  wages 

on  No.   14 93.00 

"     "      "        Rec'd  from  J.  B.  Phidias  on 

No.   14    600.00 

"     "      "        Paid  M.  A.  Pinchot  on  No.  14  80.00 

"     "       "  "      O.  F.  Oshkosh  on  No.  14  40.00 

"     "       "  "     B.  A.  Brick  on  No.  14  30.00 

"     "       "  "     carpenters'    wages    on 

No.    14 30.00 

"  29       "        Paid   carpenters'    wages   on 

No.    14... ' 8.50 

"     "       "         Rec'd  payment  in  full  from 

J.  B.  Phidias  on  No.  14.  .  569.20 

"    "      "        Paid  M.  A.  Pinchot  in  full  on 

No,  14    .  143.20 


94       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Jatt.  29,  1910.    Paid  0.  F.  Oshkosh  in  full 

on  No.   14    | 

"     "       "         Paid  O.  S.  Taylor  in  full  on 

No.    14    

"     "       "        Paid  W.  A.  Ampere  in  full 

on  No.   14 

"     "       "        Paid  E.  F.  Sargeant  in  full 

on  No.   14 

"     "       "         Paid  R.  S.  Acme  in  full  on 

No.  14 

"     "       "        Paid  O.   B.  Murillo  in   full 

on  No.  14    

"     "       "        Paid  B.  A.  Brick  in  full  on 

No.  14 

"     "       "         Paid  0.  N.  Nelson  in  full  on 

No.    14.. 


EEMAEKS 

Lists  as  Records.  —  Bills  of  material  are  bought  from  lists 
made  out  and  kept  by  the  contractor.  There  is  no  use  re- 
peating these  in  the  books.  Any  extra  received  during  the 
month  may  be  considered  as  bought  in  a  lump,  and  set  down 
without  being  detailed  out,  like  the  item  of  $13.20  on  December 
31.  This  may  have  come  on  various  dates  all  through  the 
month.  The  lumberman  does  his  daily  bookkeeping,  but  the 
contractor  can  take  advantage  of  the  summaries  at  the  end 
of  the  month  and  enter  the  complete  item  at  once.  So  with 
hardware  or  anything  else.  Even  if  bills  are  sent  upon  de- 
livery it  is  easy  enough  to  let  them  accumulate.  The  dealer 
will  not  forget  the  total  when  the  time  comes. 

Number.  —  The  advantage  of  setting  a  number  to  a  job  is 
that  it  can  be  easily  identified  in  this  way,  and  a  number  is 
far  shorter  than  a  name.  In  the  illustration  above  only  one 
building  is  listed,  but  there  might  be  two  or  three  going  on. 
Numbers  11,  12,  13  would  thus  have  to  appear  all  through 
mixed  in  the  Day  Book  with  14,  and  they  must  be  kept 
separate.  But  while  this  number  is  put  in  the  ledger  heading 
of  the  account  of  Phidias  it  is  not  in  that  of  any  of  the 
others,  because  the  chances  are  that  while  there  may  be  only 
one  contract  with  Phidias,  there  might  be  several  with  dealers 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       95 

and  subcontractors,  and  the  heading  of  No.  14  would  not  suit 
if  12  or  15  had  to  appear  also. 

Everything.  —  Each  item,  no  matter  on  which  job,  should 
be  marked  down  in  this  Day  Book  just  as  it  comes  up  under 
the  date,  and  by  using  numbers  there  is  no  danger  of  getting 
things  mixed.  Sometimes,  as  with  giving  out  contracts  on 
November  2,  and  making  payments  on  January  29,  a  good 
many  entries  can  be  made  for  the  one  job,  and  this  is  better 
when  it  can  be  done  than  mixing  numbers. 

Everything  must  be  carefully  checked  off  from  the  Day 
Book  to  the  Ledger,  or  Statement,  or  Master  Card,  for  there 
is  no  safe  check  like  the  double  entry  one  here.  An  item  of 
wages,  for  example,  might  be  in  the  Day  Book  and  not  be 
transferred  to  the  Master  Card.  In  such  a  case  the  profits 
would  look  larger  than  they  really  were. 

In  getting  monthly  statements  contractors  should  insist 
that  extras  should  appear  by  themselves,  and  not  mixed  with 
the  main  bill.  There  is  no  occasion  for  having  anything  more 
to  do  with  that  till  the  settlement  at  the  end.  If  the  separate 
items  on  a  main  bill  are  charged  to  a  contractor  as  delivered 
he  has  quite  a  time  identifying  them  and  finding  out  if  they 
are  charged  in  detail  as  they  are  as  a  whole.  He  should,  of 
course,  pay  on  it  as  he  gets  his  estimates,  but  refuse  to  dis- 
sect it  to  please  any  bookkeeper.  I  once  had  a  long  struggle 
with  one  of  this  kind. 

Ledger.  —  Now  comes  our  "  Ledger,"  or  rather,  our  State- 
ment, for  it  is  not  a  ledger.  One  was  prepared  and  thrown 
aside  for  this  book.  To  be  of  any  value  to  busy  con- 
tractors this  suggested  plan  must  be  simple  and  take  little 
time. 

At  the  end  of  each  month,  or  as  often  as  desired  a  "  balance  " 
can  be  worked  out  in  the  following  way : 


DATE  NAME  CONTRACT  NO.      AM'T  REC'l>          BALANCE 

14  AND  EXTRAS  TO  DATE  DUE 

Jan.  1,  1910.       J.  B.  Phidias      $2,334.20       $770.00      $1,564.20 

The  same  form  suits  for  the  subcontractors,  but  the  number 
of  the  contract  may  vary  in  the  heading,  as  they  may  have 
several  contracts  going  on  with  our  supposed  general  con- 
tractor. 


96       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

CONTRACTS      AMOUNT 


DATE 


NAME 


AND       REC  D 
EXTRAS    TO  DATE 


BALANCE 
DUE 


Jan.  1,  1910.  Pinchot  on  No.  14          $443.20  $220.00  $223.20 

"     "       "  Brick  on  No.  14              264.30  168.00  96.30 

"     "       "  O.  S.  Taylor  on  No.  14      43.00       43.00 

"     "       "  Carp'r  wages  on  No.  14 241.70       


This  system  is  carried  down  until  each  name  is  taken  care 
of.  If  several  buildings  are  subcontracted  for  by  Taylor, 
suppose,  the  entries  can  be  made  on  the  same  sheet.  Thus 
No.  15  would  come  below  14,  and  lower  numbers,  like  12, 
would  come  before  it. 


NAME  James  B.  Phidias,  Contract  No.  14.       ACCOUNT  NO.  8 

ADDRESS      Chicago,  HI.                                     SHEET  NO.  1. 

DATE 

ITEMS 

PAGE 

DEBIT 

DATE 

ITEMS 

PAGE 

CREDI1 

1909 

1909 

Nov. 

2 

Contract 

2 

3 

0 

0 

00 

Nov. 

25 

Cash 

3 

20 

Dec. 

7 

Extra,  No.  1 

3 

4 

20 

Dec. 
1910- 
Jan. 

24 

" 

4 

50 

\ 

13 
13 

Deduction 

1  5 

\ 

11 

Cash 

3 

80 

\ 

" 

29 

it 

6 

00 

\ 

" 

29 

" 

5 

69 

2 

3 

3 

4 

W 

2 

3 

34 

NAME    M.  A.  Pinchot, 


ACCOUNT  NO.    82. 


ADDRESS        Chicago.  III. 


SHEET  NO.  1. 


1909 

1909 

Nov. 

30 

Cash  on  14 

- 

- 

1 
1 

0 
2 

0 
0 
0 

00 

Nov. 

2 

Lumber  on  14 

4 

30 

Dec. 
1910- 
Jan. 

24 

"       " 

00 

Dec. 

31 

Extra  on  14 

1  3 

22 

"       " 

8 

00 

\ 

" 

29 

"       " 

1 

4 

3 

20 

X 

4 

4 

3 

20 

\ 

4 

4_3 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK       97 


A  separate  sheet  could  be  made  out  for  each  job,  but  this 
would  not  show  the  amount  connected  with  each  name.  Small 
contractors  do  not  carry  on  so  very  many  jobs  at  the  same 
time.  Even  with  half  a  dozen  jobs  one  sheet  like  the  above 
could  be  made  to  serve.  There  might  be  that  number  of 
entries  under  Pinchot,  for  example,  for  jobs  running  from 
14  to  19,  and  to  find  out  his  balance  it  would  only  be 
necessary  to  add  them  together. 

Ledger.  —  If  desired  a  Ledger  Statement  could  be  made  out 
for  any  account  that  has  many  entries.  The  foregoing  form 
is  suitable.  But  this  would  just  be  for  convenience  in  seeing 
how  things  stood  under  one  name  separate  from  the  others. 

Checks.  —  When  they  are  returned  from  the  bank,  paste 
them  in  the  stub  book,  and  thus  establish  another  record  that 
is  not  hard  to  keep. 


MASTER   CARD   OF  NO.    14 

Nov.   2,    1909.          Contract    price 

Dec.    7,    1909.          Extra,   No.    1  $34.20 

Jan.  12,  1910.          Deduction  No.  1  15.00 


Total  of  contract  and  extras 
Nov.  2,  1909.      Pinchot 
Dec.   31     " 
Nov.     2     " 
Dec.      7     " 
Jan.  13,  1910. 


$2,300.00 

19.20 

$2,319.20 


Pinchot  extra 
Brick 

Brick    extra 
Brick  deduction 


$24.30 
17.00 


Nov.  2,  1909. 
"     3       " 


"  30 

Dec.   7 

"  31 


Oshkosh 

Acme 

Sargeant 

Murillo 

Ampere 

Taylor 

Nelson 

Trench 

Office   suppli( 

Express 


Total  carpenters'  wages 


$430.00 

13.20 

240.00 

7.30 

200.00 
149.50 

59.50 
151.00 

36.00 

43.00 

48.00 

30.00 
1.05 
1.30 
474.60  $1,884.45 


Profit 


$434.75 


98       CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Master  Card.  —  When  some  large  builders  finish  a  job  they 
make  what  they  call  a  Master  Card.  This  shows  how  a  contract 
"  panned  out."  It  gives  a  concise  statement  of  everything  in 
connection  with  it.  The  foregoing  one  shows  No.  14  in  detail. 

Expenses.  —  There  might  be  deductions  to  be  taken  from 
this.  Part  of  the  office  expenses  if  more  than  one  job  was 
going  on,  that  is,  if  there  was  an  office;  liability  and  fire 
insurance,  if  the  owner  did  not  take  the  latter  out  as  agreed 
in  the  U.  C.;  the  purchase  of  tools,  if  charged  in  proportion 
against  the  job,  which  is  not  the  usual  custom  on  small  work; 
and  other  little  incidentals. 

Loose  Leaves.  —  If  from  this  auxiliary  hoist  system  of 
bookkeeping  the  contractor  should  go  forward  to  the  120-ton 
crane  one — for  some  of  the  cranes  took  that  load — the  loose 
leaf  ledger  should  be  considered.  It  is  getting  more  popular 
every  year.  It  is  easier  handled  than  the  ordinary  book,  and 
a  leaf  can  be  taken  out  and  replaced  without  any  trouble. 
When  a  contract  is  finished,  and  there  are  not  likely  to  be 
any  more  dealings  under  that  name,  the  sheet  is  put  out  of 
the  way  in  a  binder,  and  one  does  not  have  to  turn  it  over 
as  long  as  the  book  lasts.  Only  open  accounts  are  handled. 

Another  advantage  is  that  one  does  not  have  to  estimate  how 
many  pages  to  give  to  the  letter  "E,"  for  example,  or  S,  or 
W.  There  is  usually  waste  of  space  in  a  bound  ledger  by  a 
bad  estimate,  or  special  requirements,  such  as  a  car-load  of 
Smiths  coming  to  town.  Then  when  the  bound  ledger  is 
filled  and  there  are  many  open  accounts  in  it,  they  have 
all  to  be  transferred  to  the  new  one.  There  are  no  such 
transfers  necessary  in  the  loose  leaf  book. 

If  an  account  runs  for  a  long  while  it  is  kept  up  by  number- 
ing the  sheets,  as  Sheet  1,  Sheet  2,  Sheet  3,  and  so  on;  and 
only  the  last  sheet  need  be  handled,  as  the  others  may  be  put 
in  a  binder  in  the  fireproof  vault. 

A  Card  Index  Ledger  is  also  used.  It  is  on  the  same 
system  as  the  loose  leaf  one. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
ABOUT  KEEPING  COSTS 

No  System.  —  I  remember  a  contractor  who  kept  from 
forty  to  fifty  houses  going  up,  and  he  could  never  tell  how 
he  came  out  on  each  building.  He  followed  the  lump  system 
so  much  that  he  lumped  everything  together,  heads  I  win, 
tails  I  loose.  He  "  went  broke." 

Too  Much  System.  —  There  .is  another  kind  of  a  class 
arising  to  vex  our  souls  in  these  days.  They  time  men  with 
stop  watches  like  horses  running  a  race.  The  motions  of  a 
bricklayer's  elbow  are  photographed,  and,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  his  rear  elevation  snapped  at  the  same  time;  and 
thousands  of  pictures  and  buckets  of  "  data "  are  filled,  in- 
dexed, cross-indexed,  tabulated,  and  even  published  to  startle 
a  somnolent  world. 

Between.  —  Somewhere  between  these  two  extremes  is  a  safe 
place  for  a  contractor  who  knows  his  men  and  what  they 
should  do  in  a  day.  It  is  long  since  that  shrewd  business 
man,  Benjamin  Franklin,  told  us  that  the  eye  of  the  em- 
ployer is  worth  a  good  deal.  He  does  not  need  a  stop  watch. 

This  does  not  mean  that  he  should  not  keep  a  reasonable 
account  of  the  quantities  handled,  for  he  should,  but  it  does 
mean  that  there  is  a  limit  to  that.  There  are  too  many  men 
with  only  a  clerical  experience  laying  down  heavy  tasks  for 
backs  that,  after  all,  are  just  flesh  and  blood. 

The  Quality.  —  Some  engineers  have  taken  to  this  system 
with  a  fondness  that  is  pathetic;  and  they  know  best  how 
their  large  undertakings  should  be  handled;  but  their  system 
is  not  required,  and  could  not  be  afforded  for  the  average 
building  of  the  average  contractor. 

In  truth,  after  a  long  experience  among  engineers  and  their 
methods  of  handling  building  work,  I  discovered  that  their 
labor  costs  anywhere  from  20  to  500  per  cent,  more  than  a 
Guilder  could  or  would  pay. 

99 


100     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

As  a  general  rule,  I  should  say  that  for  grading,  heavy 
excavations,  heavy  concrete,  pile  driving,  and  whatever  is  done 
by  common  laborers,  the  engineer  is  superior  to  the  building 
contractor,  because  he  does  far  more  of  that  work  and  is 
familiar  with  the  machinery  and  the  methods  of  handling 
it.  This  means  an  engineer  of  experience. 

But  when  we  reach  high  priced  building  tradesmen,  the 
engineer,  nine  times  out  of  ten,  is  a  failure.  His  "  force 
bill,"  as  he  calls  it,  runs  outrageously  high. 

Luxury.  —  The  kind  of  an  organization  that  seems  to  be 
necessary  for  the  engineer  is  out  of  place  on  ordinary  build- 
ings. On  their  large  contracts  they  have  chief  engineer, 
assistant  chief  engineer,  resident  engineer,  superintendent, 
manager,  foreman,  sub-foreman,  timekeeper,  sub-timekeeper, 
chief  clerk,  under  clerks,  chief  cook,  ordinary  cook,  and  a 
little  regiment  of  bottle  washers.  About  one  week  of  that 
system  would  land  a  poor  building  contractor  before  the 
U.  S.  Commissioner  in  bankruptcy. 

An  Example.  —  Looking  back  over  such  a  city  as  this  one 
of  Omaha,  which  I  have  seen  grow  from  25,000  to  five  times 
as  much,  it  is  really  surprising  to  consider  with  what  little 
amount  of  record  keeping,  bookkeeping,  and  general  red  tape 
all  the  buildings  have  been  erected.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
on  four-fifths  of  the  building  work  of  the  United  States  the 
stop  watch  system  is  of  practically  no  account.  The  men 
are  watched  by  the  "  boss  "  on  the  job.  This  cannot  be  done 
by  the  large  construction  companies,  for  they  have  buildings 
going  on  all  over  the  country.  They  are  on  the  border  line 
that  separates  building  of  the  ordinary  type  from  engineering, 
and  require  their  own  record  system. 

Foremen.  —  We  are  told  that  foremen  on  engineering  work 
cost  from  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  wages  paid;  on  a 
small  building  the  foreman  works  with  the  men.  On  a 
large  one  his  brains  have  to  do  more  than  his  hands. 

Office  Expenses.  —  Again,  we  learn  that  on  engineering 
work  office  expenses  are  from  4  to  8  per  cent,  of  the 
total  cost.  This  continent  has  been  covered  with  build- 
ings from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  with  very  little  office 
expense. 

All  .this  illustrates  the  difference  between  engineering  and 
the  common  type  of  building  work.  The  necessarily  elaborate 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     101 

organization  of  the  one  is  sharply  cofitoasted'witn^thV  com- 
pulsory simplicity  of  the  other. 

How  Much.  —  About  how  much  cost  keeping  should  be  done 
by  a  contractor  carrying  on  a  few  buildings,  and  on  the 
ground  himself  every  day?  It  goes  without  saying  that  a 
separate  account  should  be  kept  of  the  different  items,  such 
as  plaster,  painting,  and  tin  work.  I  have  seen  large  build- 
ings erected  where  no  one  could  tell  how  much  each  item  cost 
by  itself. 

Excavation.  —  If  a  contractor  does  this  himself,  at  the  close 
of  each  day  he  should  make  a  fair  estimate  of  the  amount  of 
earth  displaced,  and  by  dividing  it  by  the  total  wages  he 
can  get  close  to  the  price  the  work  is  going  to  cost  him. 
Special  work,  such  as  clearing  off  a  lot  and  cutting  down 
trees,  should  have  been  allowed  separately  and  checked  as  it 
goes  on.  A  few  days  before  I  wrote  this  I  saw  two  men 
cut  down  a  maple  about  2'-0"  in  diameter,  and  the  work  took 
them  about  a  day.  To  cut  it  up  in  2-ft.  lengths  meant 
another  day,  but  a  contractor  can  sometimes  get  his  trees 
cut  down  for  nothing  for  the  sake  of  the  wood. 

Average.  —  Work  goes  a  little  slower  just  when  it  begins 
or  ends,  and  the  first  day's  output  is  likely  to  be  smaller 
than  the  general  average  will  be  later  on. 

Filing.  —  The  cost  of  the  complete  work  should  be  filed  with 
the  rate  per  yard  and  the  wages  per  hour.  It  is  then  ready 
to  refer  to  for  any  other  excavation  in  that  neighborhood, 
or  under  the  same  conditions  elsewhere. 

The  time  should  be  kept  on  special  work  such  as  filling  in 
around  the  building  or  sloping  off. 

Concrete.  —  There  might  be  quite  a  difference  in  excavation 
owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soil;  but  the  placing  of  concrete 
should  come  nearer  to  the  average  maintained  over  the 
country.  Full  figures  are  given  in  the  "  Estimator "  for  all 
kinds  of  work  done  by  hand  or  machine. 

The  size  of  the  building  has  to  be  taken  into  account.  On 
a  small  amount  of  work  the  men  hardly  get  warmed  up  to 
it  before  they  have  to  quit.  The  price  per  yard  is  naturally 
a  little  higher  than  on  large  jobs. 

Averaging.  —  After  allowing  for  the  time  required  to  make 
mixing  boards  and  get  started,  an  average  can  be  struck  at 
the  end  of  the  day's  work  and  the  unit  price  established. 


102     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

ThV  amount "  of  stc-ne,' s^fid1,  and  cement  should  be  noted  on 
several  jobs  until  the  contractor  knows  what  is  required. 
After  that  he  can  let  the  record  business  die  a  natural 
death,  so  far  as  this  material  is  concerned. 

Forms.  —  This  work  is  dangerous.  In  the  "  Estimator  "  the 
actual  cost  of  many  jobs  of  form  work  is  given,  and  in 
such  detailed  shape  that  it  would  apply  to  millions  of 
dollars'  worth  of  contracts  if  necessary.  The  detailed  figures 
are  from  the  leading  construction  companies  of  the  United 
States.  The  cost  of  labor,  lumber,  nails,  concrete,  placing 
steel  on  reinforced  concrete  buildings — all  these  things  are  set 
down.  Do  not  trifle  with  form  work.  You  cannot  expect 
to  equal  the  record  of  the  companies  which  make  a  specialty 
of  the  new  kind  of  structures,  but  it  is  well  to  know  what 
their  forms  cost  them.  You  have  then  a  fair  guide  to  watch 
the  ones  you  make. 

Masonry.  —  Foundation  rubble  should  be  measured  by  the 
cubic  yard  and  watched  each  day  so  that  the  contractor 
may  not  find  out  too  late  that  the  cost  is  going  above  the 
estimate.  We  do  not  need  to  follow  the  slave-driving  pol- 
icy to  let  any  loafer  know  that  his  quantities  are  being 
wratched. 

The  materials  remain  close  enough  to  require  no  watching 
after  the  contractor  gets  acquainted  with  the  business.  The 
time  is  the  vital  point. 

Brickwork.  —  This  is  easier  measured  than  complicated 
form  work.  There  is  no  trouble  in  seeing  if  the  men  are 
doing  what  they  should.  I  have  seen  many  returns  from 
brick  buildings  where  the  labor  ran  far  above  what  it  should 
have  done.  It  was  not  checked  in  time  as  it  ought  to  have 
been.  The  time  is  given  in  the  "  Estimator  "  for  all  classes 
of  work. 

Carpentry.  —  A  fair  idea  of  the  time  taken  on  plain  timbers, 
planking,  sheeting,  shingles,  floors,  etc.,  should  be  noted  as 
the  work  goes  on.  But  if  a  contractor  is  around  among  his 
men  his  time  is  worth  far  more  in  guiding  them  than  in 
watching  how  many  minutes  it  takes  to  lay  each  particular 
joist.  At  the  end  of  the  day  this  can  be  done,  averaged  over 
the  total. 

A  good  carpenter  contractor  KNOWS  by  his  experience  better 
than  the  roll-top  desk  experts  how  much  material  is  being 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     103 

handled  and  whether  the  men  are  speeding  up,  sleeping,  or 
averaging  fairly  well. 

The  quantities  of  material  required  for  given  surfaces  do 
not  vary  much,  and,  after  a  certain  experience,  any  record 
system  is  merely  a  waste  of  time.  Since  the  time  of  Rameses 
a  flooring  board  of  a  certain  width  covers  a  certain  surface; 
and  the  allowance  for  waste,  is  it  not  set  forth  in  the 
"  Estimator "  ?  There  may  be  a  danger  of  stealing  in  some 
localities,  but  apart  from  this  or  anything  of  a  like  nature, 
the  quantities  are  what  our  engineering  friends  call  "  con- 
stants." 

Finish.  —  On  inside  work  this  personal  watchfulness  applies 
even  more  than  on  the  kind  already  noted.  In  some  buildings 
there  are  so  many  different  kinds  of  openings  and  odd  work 
that  to  keep  an  account  of  finishing  them  would  be  merely 
piling  up  useless  records.  The  same  style  might  never  come 
up  again,  and  when  it  did,  we  could  shut  our  eyes  and  risk 
it.  One  of  the  amusing  men  in  this  business  is  he  who  says 
he  can  tell  just  exactly  what  some  special  design  will  cost 
for  labor. 

Standards.  —  Of  course,  on  large  business  buildings  with  all 
the  openings  about  the  same  size  or  style,  a  record  is  of  high 
value.  By  averaging  the  time  we  can  get  good  figures  for 
such  another  structure. 

Lathing  and  Plastering.  —  The  measurement  of  the  work 
of  these  trades  is  simple,  and  the  amount  to  be  done  per  day 
is  set  down  in  the  "  Estimator "  for  metal  and  wood  lath ; 
and  divided  for  first,  second,  and  third  coats  on  plaster. 

Painting.  —  A  good  foreman  is  better  than  a  record  system 
on  this  work,  unless  it  is  of  the  plainest  kind.  More  time 
might  be  wasted  in  measuring  the  other  kind  than  the  results 
were  worth.  A  record  can  be  kept  on  plain  outside  work, 
and  floors,  doors,  and  plaster  in  the  inside,  but  when  we  come 
to  moldings,  grilles,  balusters,  and  such  special  designs,  it  is 
of  more  importance  to  see  that  the  men  keep  busy  than  to  try 
to  measure  the  surface  they  cover. 

Filing.  —  What  is  useful  in  time  records  should  be  filed, 
and  also  what  is  special  relating  to  material.  What  does  not 
come  under  these  heads  should  be  thrown  away.  There  are 
some  establishments  that  would  be  much  benefited  by  a  fire 
that  burned  half  their  records  and  "  data." 


104    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

There  is  such  an  infinity  of  detail  about  building,  however, 
that  no  one  should  trust  to  memory  alone,  but  should  record 
whatever  is  of  value  to  supplement  a  card  index,  price  book, 
and  "  The  New  Building  Estimator." 

Time  Sheets.  —  In  a  small  business  it  is  not  usual  to  have 
time  sheets,  but  it  is  necessary  in  a  large  one.  During  my 
apprenticeship  I  had  to  fill  one  out  at  the  end  of  each  day 
and  hand  it  to  the  foreman.  The  name  of  the  job  was  given, 
the  kind  of  work  done,  and  the  number  of  hours  occupied  at 
it.  This  was  essential  in  the  large  establishment  where  I 
worked,  with  saw-mill,  planing-mill,  joiner  shop,  and  buildings 
going  on,  to  find  out  how  each  contract  came  out.  It  is  a 
good  system  when  the  business  gets  large  enough  to  justify 
it.  But  a  contractor  himself  could  not  find  time  to  do  the 
clerical  work  and  attend  all  the  circus  parades  at  the  same 
time. 

Cutting  Down  Costs.  —  Every  contractor  wants  his  labor 
done  at  as  cheap  a  total  as  possible.  He  thus  makes  larger 
profits.  This  is  a  legitimate  desire.  But  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  if  by  some  miracle  men  could  do  twice  as  much, 
the  work  would  be  figured  at  half  price,  and  things  would 
simply  be  as  before.  Profits  would  not  be  any  greater. 

One  method  of  reaching  low  totals  that  has  finally  struck 
the  building  trades  seems  to  me  to  be  entirely  wrong.  Others 
think  it  right.  This  is  the  "  athletic  contest,"  when  one  gang 
of  men  is  pitted  against  another  and  the  whip  cracks  for  a 
start.  Even  flags  are  used,  large  and  small,  to  wave  from 
the  building  with  the  best  record  on  straight  work  done  in  a 
day,  where  several  buildings  are  going  on  at  the  same  time. 

An  Example.  —  If  you  will  read  Munsey's  Magazine  for 
June,  1906,  you  will  find  an  account  of  how  Andrew  Carnegie 
"  goaded  the  heads  of  all  departments  into  a  still  more  frenzied 
race  for  dividends."  "  Faster,  faster,"  he  cried,  and  made 
them  presents  and  criticised  their  slowness. 

During  all  that  time  he  was  making  40  per  cent,  on  his 
investment.  It  is  an  old  trait  of  this  race  that  sickening 
greed  would  not  be  pleased  with  400  per  cent.,  although  human 
flesh  and  blood  was  driven  to  the  limit  to  make  it. 

In  the  number  for  July,  1906,  we  are  told  that  Mr. 
Carnegie  "  stimulated  competition  almost  to  the  point  of 
ferocity."  "  Every  job  was  a  race," 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     105 

There  are  men  who  think  that  such  ferocity  is  unworthy 
of  this  republic,  and  there  are  others  who  believe  in  it.  In 
1908  or  1909  the  "  Pittsburg  Survey"  was  made  possible  by 
money  furnished  by  Mrs.  Russell  Sage.  The  other  side  of  the 
40  per  cent,  business  was  shown.  It  is  a  terrible  story. 
If  men  are  to  be  driven  like  slaves,  and  the  end  is  to  be  such 
contrasts,  they  are  finally  going  to  shut  their  teeth  and  put 
a  stop  to  it,  and  to  several  other  things  at  the  same  time. 

I  have  been  among  tradesmen  all  my  life.  My  advice  to 
the  flag  heroes  would  be,  Stop  it.  Bad  as  a  loafer  is  there 
is  yet  a  worse  on  this  earth. 

Instead  of  driving  furiously  like  Jehu,  the  son  of  Nimshi, 
how  would  it  do  to  save  the  fire  waste  of  several  hundreds 
of  millions  a  year?  There  is  not  much  sense  in  producing 
at  a  faster  and  faster  gait  merely  to  burn. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
BUILDERS'  LAW 

"  Experienced  contractors  will  bear  the  writer  out  in  saying 
that  more  contractors  have  been  ruined  because  of  legal 
difficulties  than  by  reason  of  physical  ones." — The  Business  of 
Contracting,  McCullough. 

Authorities.  —  Upon  slight  notice  any  lawyer  could  gather 
together  a  score  of  fat  volumes  of  court  decisions  relating,  in 
one  way  or  another,  to  buildings.  All  that  will  be  found  in 
this  chapter  are  a  few  "  pointers "  to  keep  builders  away 
from  law  as  much  as  possible. 

Danger.  —  It  has  been  said  that  the  only  proper  way  of 
doing  business  now  is  with  a  lawyer  looking  over  your 
shoulder  to  keep  you  straight.  It  was  for  this  reason  that 
the  Uniform  and  Subcontracts  were  so  strongly  recommended 
in  a  former  chapter. 

The  Commas.  —  Not  long  ago  there  were  some  criminals  in 
Missouri  convicted  of  stealing  from  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  and 
sentenced  to  the  penitentiary.  They  were  released  on  an 
appeal.  The  judge  found  that  "  the  "  was  missing  from  one 
part  of  the  proceedings,  and  that  in  another  part  there  was 
an  "  e  "  too  many.  Some  day  the  people  will  sweep  this  kind 
of  law  where  it  belongs. 

This  instance,  out  of  many  of  a  like  nature,  is  cited  to 
show  contractors  that  "  law  "  is  an  uncertain  thing  to  tamper 
with.  If  possible,  keep  away  from  it. 

It  also  means  that  any  of  the  following  laws  in  this  chapter 
may  be  upheld  or  set  aside  according  to  the  humor  of  a  judge. 
If  he  wants  to  set  them  aside  he  can  find  a  reason  easily 
enough. 

General.  —  First  of  all,  for  reference,  we  shall  set  down  a 
few  laws  that  apply  to  all  businesses  alike. 

One  of  the  first  principles  laid  down  in  the  usual  schedule 
printed  is  that  ignorance  of  the  law  excuses  no  one.  Con- 

106 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     107 

tractors  should  remember  that.  Yet  in  1909  a  man  in 
Kansas  was  sentenced  for  an  offense  against  the  postal  laws 
after  the  local  postmaster  had  told  him  his  matter  was 
mailable.  It  is  sometimes  hard  to  know  what  the  law  is,  even 
when  ignorance  of  it  leads  to  punishment. 

The  law  compels  no  one  to  do  impossibilities. 

It  is  a  fraud  to  conceal  a  fraud. 

A  signature  made  with  lead  pencil  is  good  in  law. 

A  returned  check  is  not  a  receipt;  and  a  receipt  for  money 
paid  is  not  always  conclusive. 

A  principal  is  responsible  for  the  acts  of  his  agent. 

An  agreement  without  consideration  of  value  is  void. 

An  oral,  or  "  word  of  mouth,"  agreement  must  be  proved 
by  evidence,  but  a  written  agreement  proves  itself.  This  is 
why  general  contractors  should  not  be  expected  to  take  sub- 
bids  orally.  They  should  get  written  bids. 

A  contract  made  with  a  minor  is  voidable. 

State  Laws.  —  A  reasonable  familiarity  with  the  laws  re- 
lating to  building  in  the  state  in  which  work  is  done  is 
almost  necessary.  In  Missouri,  for  example,  the  legislature 
settled  the  questions  of  measurement  of  quantities. 

Legal  holidays  should  also  be  noted.  There  are  no  national 
legal  holidays,  not  even  on  the  Fourth  of  July,  or  Thanks- 
giving. So  far  as  the  president's  proclamation  goes,  Thanks- 
giving is  legal  only  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  in  the 
territories.  So  far  as  the  United  States  are  concerned  a  con- 
tractor need  observe  no  holidays  in  the  various  states;  and 
when  working  for  the  United  States  on  ground  to  which  they 
have  legal  title,  he  is  independent  of  the  state  government. 
But  it  is  well  to  see  if  the  number  of  hours  per  day  that  may 
be  worked  is  not  specified.  The  eight-hour  day  is  general,  and, 
in  most  U.  S.  work,  compulsory. 

The  hours  allowed  on  state  work  should  also  be  noted. 
Machinery  that  costs  a  heavy  price  may  be  workable  only 
eight  hours  instead  of  ten  as  expected. 

CONTRACTS 

A  proposal,  or  offer,  or  bid,  of  a  contractor  is  the  first  step 
towards  a  contract.  This  tender  put  in  may  be  withdrawn 
at  any  time  before  it  is  accepted.  No  matter  if  the  architect 


108     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

refuses  to  give  it  up,  if  the  demand  for  its  return  before 
witnesses  or  in  writing  is  made  before  its  acceptance,  the  con- 
tractor cannot  be  held  to  enter  into  contract. 

Verbal  Bid.  —  If  a  bid  of  this  kind  is  made  it  must  be 
accepted  at  once,  or  the  contractor  cannot  be  held.  If  it  is 
accepted  at  once,  or  in  writing,  he  can  be  held.  There  may, 
of  course,  be  a  time  set  within  which  .the  contractor  will  enter 
into  contract,  as  with  an  option  given  on  property,  for  ex- 
ample, but  when  that  time  has  expired  without  acceptance 
the  contractor  is  free  of  all  obligation. 

Unless  there  is  some  consideration  paid,  the  party  giving 
an  option  on  real  estate,  etc.,  is  not  bound,  but  can  sell  the 
property  to  anyone  before  the  time  specified. 

Acceptance.  —  If  A  mails  an  acceptance  of  a  bid  or  option 
from  B,  the  time  is  dated  from  the  hour  of  mailing  and  not 
from  the  time  that  B  receives  the  letter.  Although  B  may 
already  have  sent  away  a  letter  withdrawing  his  offer,  he  is 
held  to  enter  into  contract  if  A's  letter  was  mailed  before 
he  received  the  notice  of  B's  withdrawal.  But  if  A  has  set 
down  any  new  conditions,  then  B  is  clear.  The  acceptance 
must  come  on  the  basis  of  the  offer. 

Government  Work.  —  So  important  is  this  letter  of  accept- 
ance that  in  government  work  it  is  referred  to  and  made  a 
part  of  the  formal  contract;  and  the  letter  of  proposal  is 
also  thus  mentioned.  It  is  therefore  necessary  that  everyone 
sending  in  a  proposal  should  understand  that  he  is  held  to 
complete  the  building  if  it  is  accepted. 

Bids  are  Contracts.  —  This  shows  that  for  all  practical 
purposes  bids  are  really  contracts  as  soon  as  they  are  accepted. 
If  you  have  made  some  mistake  and  the  owner  wants  to  take 
some  "  snap  judgment "  on  you,  as  it  were,  all  he  has  to  do 
is  verbally  to  accept  your  bid  or  mail  you  a  letter  accepting 
it  as  it  stands,  and  you  are  held  to  carry  through  the  work. 
But  a  conditional  acceptance  by  A  does  not  bind  B. 

I  once  had  to  back  out.  The  carpenter  labor  was  carefully 
figured,  but  not  included  in  the  total.  On  the  same  building 
another  contractor  had  backed  out,  owing  to  some  mistake, 
and  when  I  went  to  the  architect  as  No.  2  with  one  more  tale 
of  sorrow  he  was  not  in  the  pleasantest  humor,  for  his  com- 
mission was  vanishing  out  of  his  sight.  I  could  have  been 
held.  So  look  out  for  your  bids. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     109 

A  building  contract  is  an  agreement  between  two  or  more 
parties,  and  may  be  either  written  or  verbal.  What  you  do 
when  you  mail  or  hand  in  a  bid  is  to  perform  your  part  of 
the  contract,  and  naturally  as  soon  as  the  owner  agrees  with 
you  the  bargain  is  made.  You  can  hold  him,  and  he  can 
hold  you.  It  is  a  pity  if  one  contractor  has  left  out  all  the 
great  plate  glass  front,  and  another  has  forgotten  that  car- 
penters need  money  on  Saturday  night,  but  the  owner  thinks 
you  competent  to  do  what  your  bid  says  and  will  be  much 
obliged  if  you  will  go  ahead. 

Title.  —  The  person  who  signs  the  contract  for  a  building 
with  a  contractor  must  have  the  title  or  lease  to  the  ground 
upon  which  the  building  is  to  be  erected.  Otherwise  the  con- 
tractor may  lose  all  he  puts  in  it.  All  permanent  structures 
belong  to  the  freehold,  or  land,  and  cannot  be  taken  off.  To 
a  layman,  this  seems  a  severe  and  unjust  law,  but  it  is  well 
that  contractors  especially  should  understand  it.  Even  if 
some  of  them  built  a  frame  house  on  the  wrong  ground  it 
would  not  be  quite  so  bad  if  it  could  be  moved  off,  but  our 
legal  friends  have  us  tied  up  rather  tight  on  this  proposition. 
Therefore,  do  not  build  on  the  wrong  ground,  or  you  may  not 
only  lose  the  structure,  but  the  real  owner  may  sue  you  for 
damages  to  his  property.  He  may  not  like  your  style  of 
architecture. 

Before  signing  a  contract  with  anyone  be  sure  that  one  has 
a  clear  title  to  the  ground. 

It  often  happens  that  a  man's  wife  owns  the  lot,  and  the 
contract  for  a  house  should  really  be  made  with  her;  yet 
in  some  cases  when  the  husband  is,  in  the  old  phrase,  a 
man  of  substance,  the  contractor  signs  with  him.  It  is  a  bad 
practice;  but  the  supreme  court  of  Florida  has  held  that  if 
the  wife  has  knowledge  of  the  erection  of  the  building,  and 
does  not  dissent,  but  acquiesces,  the  property  may  be  sold 
to  pay  the  agreed  price.  When  in  a  case  of  this  kind  a  woman 
comes  around  and  accepts  things  as  they  are,  and  probably 
gives  the  contractor  instructions,  she  is  really  held.  But  in 
nine  cases  out  of  ten  why  sign  a  contract  with  a  man  to 
build  a  house  for  him  on  a  lot  that  he  does  not  own?  The 
proper  thing  is  to  tell  him  that  you  would  much  prefer  to 
have  his  wife  sign. 

Corporations  can  make  contracts  only  within  their  charters 


110    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

or  statutory  powers.  The  proper  officer  should  sign  them,  and 
it  is  better  that  he  should  use  a  seal. 

A  railway  is  not  usually  chartered  to  build  churches,  for 
example.  It  is  therefore  unwise  to  build  a  church  for  a  rail- 
road unless  you  are  sure  it  has  authority  to  expend  its 
revenue  in  this  manner.  Some  of  its  stockholders  who  did 
not  believe  in  churches  might  get  out  an  injunction  and  keep 
the  contractor  from  his  money  until  the  title  of  the  drawings 
could  be  changed,  making  it  a  storehouse  or  boiler  shop. 

Illegal.  —  A  minor,  drunk  person,  or  person  of  unsound 
mind  cannot  make  a  contract.  When  making  one  with  those 
who  cannot  read,  are  blind,  deaf,  or  otherwise  defective,  it  is 
well  to  have  good  witnesses.  Married  women,  in  most  states, 
can  now  make  contracts.  We  are  making  strange  progress! 
A  husband  cannot  sign  a  contract  for  his  wife  in  states  where 
she  can  sign  one  for  herself  without  her  permission.  This, 
however,  would  not  prevent  him  from  signing  a  contract  for 
a  house  on  her  land,  if  the  builder  was  wTilling  to  take  chances, 
but  she  could  stop  the  erection  of  the  structure. 

Legality.  —  The  object  sought  in  a  contract  must  be  legal. 
If  structures  of  a  certain  kind  are  forbidden  in  a  state  it  is 
not  legal  to  put  them  up,  any  more  than  it  is  to  build  a  wrall 
of  less  thickness  than  that  specified  in  the  building  code. 

Fraud  will  void  a  contract. 

Sunday.  —  You  can  certainly  agree  to  do  anything  on  Sun- 
day, but  contracts  should  not  be  signed  then,  as  they  cannot 
be  enforced,  except  in  possibly  a  few  states. 

Severity.  —  The  Builders'  Uniform  Subcontract  has  one 
strong  point  in  its  favor  that  keeps  a  general  contractor  on 
the  right  path.  It  is  not  severe.  Do  not  attempt  to  make 
a  severe  contract,  or  the  courts  will  not  uphold  you.  Even 
if  you  have  power,  that  thing  that  has  been  so  often  the  bane 
of  the  human  race,  do  not,  in  the  vernacular,  "  be  a  hog."  Be 
fair,  and  it  pays. 

Partial  Performance  of  a  contract  will  "  bind  the  bargain." 
Do  not  start  the  excavation  and  then  discover  that  you  have 
forgotten  the  west  wall.  It  is  then  too  late  to  cry  quits.  It 
is  sometimes  possible  to  back  out  on  a  bid,  but  a  little  more 
difficult  after  the  work  is  started.  The  great  men  who  never 
make  a  mistake  smile  at  you  for  years  for  anything  of  this 
kind. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     HI 

Breaking  of  a  Contract.  —  If  the  building  has  to  be  stopped, 
and  there  is  no  provision  in  the  contract  for  such  a  con- 
tingency, a  fair  compensation  may  be  agreed  upon  by  the 
parties  for  the  work  done,  but  the  nature  of  the  arrangement 
must  be  exclusively  for  compensation  to  one  side  or  the 
other,  and  not  as  a  penalty,  or  anything  in  the  nature  of  a 
penalty,  for  the  courts  would  not  uphold  that. 

Stoppage.  —  If  the  work  is  stopped  on  the  owner's  account 
the  contractor  cannot  always  recover  the  profit  he  might 
have  made.  Railroads  arrange  for  the  stoppage  of  their  work 
at  any  time  by  putting  the  right  kind  of  a  clause  in  the  con- 
tract; and  the  provision  is  also  inserted  that  the  contractor 
shall  receive  only  that  proportion  of  the  total  profit  which 
the  part  of  the  structure  already  erected  bears  to  the  whole. 
In  other  words,  if  the  building  is  half  done,  the  builder  will 
get  half  the  profits,  and  so  on. 

In  the  Uniform  Contract  if  the  contractor  does  not  keep  on 
sufficient  men,  or  neglects  to  abide  by  the  decision  of  the 
architect,  the  owner  can  enter  upon  the  premises,  set  the 
contractor  aside,  and  take  matters  into  his  own  hands.  No 
more  payments  are  made  to  the  contractor  till  the  building 
is  finished,  and  if  there  is  any  money  left  he  gets  it;  if  there 
has  not  been  enough  to  finish  he  has  to  reimburse  the  owner. 

Written  or  Verbal.  —  If  the  work  is  not  to  be  begun  before 
a  year  the  contract  must  be  written,  and,  in  case  of  mis- 
understanding, this  means  printed  or  typewritten  also. 

When  printed  forms  are  so  cheap,  it  does  not  pay  to  go 
ahead  on  a  verbal  contract.  Who  knows  the  amount?  Sup- 
pose one  of  the  parties  should  die,  will  the  heirs,  assigns, 
administrators,  and  the  rest  of  them  take  the  word  of  one 
interested  party  as  to  how  much  the  contract  ran  to?  There 
may  be  no  book  record.  More  than  likely,  the  owner  who 
goes  ahead  in  this  loose  way  is  just  the  one  who  would  keep 
no  record.  He  could  trust  his  own  memory  well  enough,  but 
in  case  he  died,  what  then? 

Payments.  —  There  is  one  point  that  is  worth  attention  with 
respect  to  payments,  and  that  is,  whether  the  material  de- 
livered on  the  ground  is  to  be  paid  for.  Most  of  the  states, 
and  occasionally,  the  United  States,  do  this. 

There  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  why  an  owner  should  not 
pay  for  at  least  certain  materials.  He  has  a  bond  to  secure 


112     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

him,  in  case  of  any  misgiving  as  to  whether  they  will  ever 
be  installed  in  the  building.  In  the  case  of  stone,  brick, 
heavy  lumber,  steel  and  iron,  and  certain  kinds  of  millwork 
that  will  not  deteriorate  under  the  weather,  payment  might 
be  made  upon  delivery,  especially  if  it  could  not  be  put 
in  place  for  several  months,  as  in  northern  climates  in 
winter. 

The  owner,  of  course,  does  not  wish  to  pay  out  money  so 
soon,  especially  if  he  is  borrowing  and  paying  interest.  The 
point  is  worth  watching  when  signing  a  contract,  however,  for 
in  some  cases  a  reasonable  arrangement  can  be  made. 

Partial  Payments.  —  Unless  a  builder  is  rich  he  should  not 
sign  a  contract  that  does  not  provide  for  partial  payments 
as  the  work  progresses,  but  makes  payment  only  when  the 
whole  structure  is  completed.  The  want  of  some  trifle  may 
delay  completion  for  a  couple  of  months,  or  the  owner  may 
make  a  dispute  over  one  matter  or  another  and  hold  back  a 
settlement. 

Ironclad  Payment.  —  Do  not  sign  a  contract  providing  that 
nothing  whatever  shall  be  paid  on  a  building  unless  it  is 
finished  on  time.  That  is  too  much  of  a  gamble,  and  the 
finishing  of  a  building  is  not  a  sure  thing. 

The  Installment  Plan.  —  It  is  generally  stated  in  a  contract 
that  no  partial  payment  given  as  the  work  progresses  is  to 
be  considered  an  acceptance  in  any  manner  of  any  part  of 
the  work.  It  has  been  held  by  the  courts,  however,  in  an 
agreement  to  pay  for  a  building  in  this  way,  that,  upon  the 
owner's  failure  to  meet  one  of  the  stipulated  payments,  the 
contractor  could  abandon  the  contract  and  recover  the  profits 
he  might  have  made  by  completing  the  entire  structure.  One 
judge  might  give  such  a  decision,  but  the  next  one  would  be 
likely  to  overturn  it  as  "  unconstitutional." 

Time  Dangers.  —  A  fair  rental  for  the  property  for  the 
time  the  owner  has  been  held  out  of  it  after  the  set  date  is  the 
standard  penalty  for  delay.  It  is  seldom  enforced,  for  the 
owner  usually  breaks  the  contract  on  his  side,  in  one  way 
or  another,  as  well  as  the  builder. 

In  a  time  contract  additional  orders  for  extras  may  give 
cause  for  annulling  the  agreement,  and  especially  if  the  extras 
are  heavy;  but  an  order  for  extras  does  not  necessarily  waive 
the  time  condition. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     113 

Reasonable  Time.  —  Even  if  no  time  of  completion  is  laid 
down,  the  contractor  must  use  reasonable  diligence  to  finish 
the  building  without  delay.  If  he  does  not,  the  owner  can 
sue  him  and  recover  damages. 

On  the  other  hand,»  if  the  owner  block  the  way  of  the 
contractor  the  latter  can  recover  reasonable  damages — after 
probably  an  unreasonable  time  should  he  go  to  law.  In  such 
a  case,  too,  there  can  be  no  penalty  taken  from  the  con- 
tractor even  if  it  is  provided  for  in  the  contract.  The  owner 
must  keep  up  his  end  of  the  agreement,  or  he  cannot  hold 
the  contractor. 

Number  of  Days.  —  If  the  number  of  days  is  specified  in  a 
contract  see  that  they  are  working  days,  or  days  that  men 
can  work,  which  is  better.  There  might  be  rain  or  zero 
weather,  or  legal  holidays,  when  the  wages  were  doubled;  and 
Sundays  might  be  included. 

Time  Penalty.  —  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  time  con- 
tract cannot  be  enforced,  although  it  seldom  is.  It  must  not 
be  supposed,  either,  that  an  allowance  for  extension  will  be 
given  at  the  end  unless  the  contractor  has  applied  for  it  as 
specified.  Even  if  an  owner  waive  the  limit  on  account  of 
extras,  the  building  must  be  completed  within  a  reasonable 
time  after  an  allowance  is  given  for  the  additional  work. 
Unforeseen  difficulties,  no  matter  how  great,  do  not  relieve 
the  contractor  from  his  contract  obligations.  He  must  carry 
them  out,  unless  this  is  rendered  impossible  by  an  act  of  God, 
the  other  party  to  the  contract,  or  the  law. 

Insurance,  Cyclone,  etc.  —  If  a  building  has  been  destroyed 
by  earthquake  or  fire,  suppose,  no  matter  if  there  has  been 
no  insurance,  the  owner  can  recover  the  amounts  paid  on 
installments  to  the  contractor,  who  has  agreed  to  turn  over 
a  complete  building,  or  part  of  one,  as  in  the  case  of  a  sub- 
contractor dealing  with  the  owner,  and  must  do  so  if  this  is 
possible.  The  risk  lies  with  the  contractor,  who  should  insure 
against  it. 

In  the  court  of  appeals  of  Maryland,  a  contractor  who 
suffered  tried  to  have  the  storm  which  blew  down  his  nearly 
completed  building  construed  as  an  act  of  God,  and  thus  lay 
the  loss  on  the  owner,  but  the  decision  went  against  him, 
although  a  provision  about  "  an  act  of  God "  was  in  the 
bond  which  he  furnished. 


114     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

In  a  way,  this  is  fair.  The  question  is,  Are  there  com- 
panies which  insure  a  contractor  against  such  and  such  a 
risk?  If  so,  then  why  did  he  neglect  to  take  out  insurance? 
Why  should  the  owner  suffer  because  of  his  carelessness? 
Probably  even  if  there  were  no  such*  companies  the  courts 
would  hold  as  this  one  did.  The  contractor  risks  his  property 
that  he  will  do  what  he  agrees.  The  owner  is  entitled  to 
expect  him  to  do  so. 

All  Insurance.  —  A  contractor  should  insure  against  fire, 
flood,  cyclone,  earthquake,  boiler  explosions,  or  falling  walls 
next  door  to  his  contract,  sinking  foundations,  personal  liabil- 
ity, robbery  of  wages  as  he  carries  them  from  the  bank,  and 
everything  else  that  the  insurance  companies  can  be  found 
to  insure.  If  he  does  not  he  takes  the  risk.  Ignorance  Of 
the  law  excuses  no  contractor.  In  many  cases  he  must  "  put 
up  or  be  shut  up." 

Authorities.  —  As  usual,  there  is  a  mass  of  law  and  evi- 
dence connected  with  this  subject  of  responsibility,  but  the 
leading  rule  is  this: — "If  a  contract  is  entire  and  indivisible 
for  the  erection  and  completion  of  a  certain  building,  for  a 
certain  price,  and  the  structure  is  destroyed,  whether  by  fire, 
lightning,  storm,  or  defective  soil  before  completion,  the  loss 
falls  upon  the  builder;  but  if  the  contract  price  is  to  be  paid 
by  installments  as  certain  specified  portions  of  the  work  are 
completed,  and  the  house  be  destroyed  during  the  progress  of 
the  work,  the  builder  is  entitled  to  all  the  installments  then 
due,  the  only  loss  which  falls  upon  him  being  for  the  in- 
completed  portion  upon  which  he  may  be  engaged  at  the 
time  of  the  fire." 

This  does  not  do  a  builder  much  good,  for  few  contracts 
are  so  taken.  If  a  house  was  let  in,  say,  four  contracts,  there 
would  be  a  chance  for  the  contractor.  Thus,  it  might  be 
arranged  to  make  one  complete  contract  for  the  basement; 
another  for  the  first  story;  the  third  for  enclosing;  and  the 
fourth  for  finishing.  The  contractor  might  never  leave  the 
ground,  but  each  contract  would  be  considered  complete  by 
itself. 

Suppose  that  he  is  working  on  No.  4,  and  fire  destroys 
the  whole  structure.  Then  the  owner  would  lose  all  the  value 
of  the  three  first  contracts,  and  the  contractor  would  lose 
whatever  was  done  on  the  fourth  only.  Instead  of  a  "  separate 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    115 

and  indivisible  contract"  being  made  for  the  complete  struc- 
ture, four  such  contracts  are  made,  and  naturally  each  con- 
tract has  to  stand  on  its  own  feet.  After  the  first  three  are 
finished  the  builder  has  nothing  more  to  do  with  them. 

Not  one  building  in  a  score  is  taken  that  way. 

Repairs.  —  Do  not  sign  a  contract  to  keep  a  building  in 
repair  for  six  months  or  a  year  after  it  is  turned  over  to 
the  owner,  or,  if  you  do,  have  it  clearly  understood  what 
repairs  mean.  Should  the  building  fall,  or  get  washed  away 
the  courts  may  compel  the  contractor  to  rebuild  it  and  put 
it  in  the  original  condition.  Such  a  case  was  decided  with 
respect  to  a  bridge  that  was  washed  away  in  a  flood.  It 
would  seem  to  any  ordinary  mind  that  an  agreement  to  keep 
in  repairs  would  be  understood  as  attending  to  any  minor 
defects  that  developed,  but  would  not  mean  that  the  con- 
tractor was  responsible  for  the  whole  building,  or  structure. 
Law  is  a  funny  thing. 

Poor  Foundations.  —  It  has  been  also  held  that  if  a  build- 
ing goes  to  wreck  because  of  poor  foundations  the  contractor 
is  responsible.  As  already  said  in  another  chapter,  about  the 
only  safe  course  is  for  a  contractor  to  get  a  written  order 
from  an  architect  to  go  ahead,  as  the  ground  is  satisfactory. 
This  would  put  the  responsibility  where  it  belonged — if  the 
courts  accepted  the  order  as  constitutional. 

Underpinning'  and  Shoring-.  —  In  general,  a  specification 
must  say  what  is  to  be  done,  although  no  builder  expects  a 
detailed  reference  to  every  trifle.  If  this  is  neglected,  the 
contractor  is  not  held  to  perform  work,  although  it  is  shown 
on  the  plans,  in  spite  of  the  time  worn  clause  to  the  contrary. 

But  the  courts  have  held  that  a  contractor  putting  up  a 
new  building  by  the  side  of  an  old  one  must  protect  the  old 
one  by  shoring  it  up,  underpinning  it,  and  leaving  it  in  good 
condition. 

If  a  contractor  runs  against  any  danger  of  this  kind,  his 
best  method  is  to  state  in  his  bid  just  what  he  proposes 
to  do,  and  to  see  that  the  matter  is  properly  fixed  in  the 
contract. 

Acceptance  of  Defective  Work.  —  If  the  quality  of  the  work 
is  not  up  to  the  standard  set  in  the  plans  and  specifications, 
the  owner  MAY  accept  it,  but  pay  only  what  it  is  worth. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  may  be  so  disgusted  as  to  order  the 


116     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

entire  building  torn  down  and  rebuilt.  If  the  builder  will 
not  do  that,  the  owner  can  order  him  to  remove  his  material 
from  the  land,  in  which  event  the  builder  will  have  no  claim 
for  the  cost  of  the  work  done. 

As  may  be  seen  by  this,  it  is  rather  dangerous  to  supply 
workmanship  or  material  of  too  poor  a  quality. 

In  certain  cases  when  the  owner  takes  possession  of  the 
building  and  begins  to  use  it,  he  is  held  for  payment,  although 
he  may  deduct  for  inferior  work.  But  in  other  cases,  even 
taking  possession  does  not  mean  that  payment  has  to  be 
made.  The  owner  must  pay  when  he  gets  what  he  agreed 
to  pay  for.  That  is  what  he  is  entitled  to.  It  is  dangerous 
to  try  to  make  him  accept  less. 

Acceptance  of  a  Building.  —  In  The  Building  Age  for 
February,  1910,  we  are  told  what  constitutes  acceptance  of  a 
building.  Taking  of  the  keys  by  an  owner,  or  occupation  of 
the  building,  while  strong  evidence  is  not  conclusive.  These 
acts  must  also  be  coupled  with  some  act  or  language  from 
which  acceptance  may  be  reasonably  inferred.  This  principle 
has  been  decided  by  the  highest  courts  of  nearly  all  the  im- 
portant states,  including  Massachusetts. 

The  use  of  a  building  when  the  builder  stops  working  on  it 
is  not  an  acceptance  where  the  contract  expressly  provides 
that  only  an  order  for  final  payment  shall  be  considered  an 
acceptance.  It  has  been  decided  also  that  occupation  only 
waives  unintentional  omissions  unsubstantial  in  their  nature, 
for  which  due  allowance  can  be  made  to  the  owner.  Where 
defective  performance  is  not  the  fault  of  the  builder,  accept- 
ance may  be  implied  from  possession  and  occupation,  not- 
withstanding a  protest  from  the  owner. 

It  has  been  decided  also  that  where  the  owner  of  a  building 
in  the  course  of  erection  takes  possession  of  and  occupies 
a  portion  of  it,  and  afterwards  takes  possession  of  and  occu- 
pies the  whole  building,  there  is  an  acceptance. 

A  notice  from  an  owner  to  a  builder  that  he  will  complete 
unfinished  work  and  deduct  the  cost  from  the  contract  price 
is  an  election  to  accept  it,  subject  to  the  necessary  cost  of 
completion. 

I  never  had  any  trouble  getting  a  building  accepted  without 
ceremony.  With  the  fine  legal  points  that  the  lawyers  gather 
around  every  corner  one  can  never  tell  "  where  he  is  at.'' 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    117 

They  catch  him  coming  and  going;  on  foot  or  on  horseback; 
and  he  is  lucky  if  he  escapes  with  his  hide. 

"  We  Do  Not  Substitute."  —  A  contractor  must,  as  far  as 
possible  on  all  work,  and  especially  on  government  work,  use 
the  material  specified,  and  not  use  what  he  thinks  is  "  just  as 
good,"  without  permission  from  the  architect  or  owner. 

The  supreme  court  of  the  state  of  New  York  let  a  builder 
understand  this  in  1907.  He  substituted  what  was  just  as 
good,  and  probably  better,  in  some  cases,  but  he  had  no  right 
to  do  so.  One  kind  of  sash  cord  was  specified,  and  he  used 
another;  and  so  on,  all  through.  He  landed  himself  in  trouble 
for  no  good  reason. 

Simple  Simony.  —  If  a  builder  takes  a  contract  upon  an 
architect's  representations  that  certain  quantities  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  work,  or  that  a  certain  amount  of  labor  will 
finish  it,  and  finds  out  that  it  takes  more,  no  extra  payment 
need  be  allowed.  Builders  are  supposed  to  have  cut  their  eye 
teeth. 

Completeness.  —  A  contract  must  be  entirely  finished.  A 
contractor  cannot  expect  a  settlement  before  it  is.  This  does 
not  mean,  however,  that  some  trifling  omissions  can  prevent 
a  settlement  of  the  main  contract. 

Extras.  —  If  the  contract  provides  that  extras  are  to  be 
done  only  upon  a  written  order  of  the  architect,  then,  by  all 
means,  get  one  or  leave  them  alone.  An  architect  who  knows 
what  the  contract  provides  for  has  no  right  to  ask  or  expect 
anyone  to  go  ahead  without  such  an  order.  There  are  two 
sides  to  a  contract. 

Profit.  —  The  general  rule  for  profit  on  extras,  if  we  are  to 
believe  the  specifications,  should  be  the  same  as  that  on  the 
main  contract.  It  is  customary  to  charge  more, — a  good  deal 
more,  in  many  cases.  Those  who  say  that  lumbermen  and 
hardware  men  should  sell  extras  on  the  same  basis  as  the 
main  bill,  just  like  a  brickmaker  with  brick,  forget  the  rule 
when  their  own  turn  comes. 

It  does  not  pay  to  charge  too  high  a  price,  but  the  owner 
should  remember  the  possibility  of  a  damage  suit  for  $25,000. 
An  accident  may  happen  on  an  extra  as  well  as  on  the  main 
part;  and  when  a  builder  gets  the  chance  he  tries  to  even 
up  some  of  the  incidental  expenses.  In  case  of  any  effort  to 
limit  the  profit  on  extras  when  the  contract  is  signed  the 


118     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

proposal  might  be  made  that  the  owner  would  be  responsible 
for  all  accidents  or  deaths  happening  on  them. 

Old  Structures.  —  If  the  specification  or  contract  makes  no 
reference  to  old  structures  on  the  ground,  they  become  the 
property  of  the  contractor. 

Sizes.  —  Market  sizes  of  lumber,  etc.,  will  be  upheld  by  the 
courts.  If  2-in.  lumber  is  wanted  it  must  be  carefully  specified 
as  such,  for  the  trade  size  is  only  1%.  A  2x6  is  only 
I%x5y2,  and  so  on.  It  is  not,  therefore,  enough  to  call  for 
a  2  x  6,  but  is  necessary  to  say  that  market  sizes  will  not 
be  accepted,  but  that  full  sizes  are  to  be  used.  This  means 
quite  an  increase  in  price.  In  milhvork  it  is  easier  to  get 
the  exact  sizes  marked,  although  |f  always  comes  for  %. 
Full  sized  lumber  not  only  costs  more  to  saw,  since  it  is 
special,  but  is  heavier,  and  the  freight  costs  more. 

Allowances.  —  Sometimes  certain  amounts  are  specified  for 
work  that  cannot  be  detailed  in  time,  or  for  some  such  reason. 
The  contractor  does  not  have  to  expend  more  than  the  allow- 
ance, no  matter  what  detail  the  architect  may  present  after- 
wards. This  is  from  the  supreme  court  of  Illinois.  It  seems 
an  unnecessary  ruling;  but  probably  some  architect  had  been 
at  the  old  game  of  trying  to  build  up  a  reputation  for  fine 
work  at  another  man's  expense,  and  the  latter  had  to  stop  it. 

Patents.  —  In  government  and  railroad  wTork  there  is  usually 
a  clause  putting  all  the  responsibility  of  using  patented 
articles,  and  of  defending  any  suits  for  their  infringement, 
upon  the  contractor.  No  matter  if  such  articles  are  called  for 
in  the  architect's  specification,  the  contractor  should  make 
himself  sure  that  they  can  be  used  without  liability  to  himself. 
The  architect  cannot  be  held  responsible;  it  is  the  contractor's 
business  to  find  out  how  things  stand. 

Adjoining  Building.  —  As  already  stated  at  UNDERPINNING, 
the  contractor  is  responsible  for  the  safety  of  the  adjoining 
building.  At  this  writing,  February  5,  1910,  the  subject  was 
brought  up  before  Omaha  builders  once  more,  just  as  it  is 
at  one  time  or  another  to  builders  in  all  parts  of  the  land. 
A  16-story  building,  going  up  at  the  side  of  one  of  two  stories, 
put  too  much  weight  on  the  old  wall,  and  about  $1,000  worth 
of  it  fell  in  the  jewelry  and  piano  department.  This  also 
gives  a  chance  for  damage  suits.  It  so  happened  that  the 
people  inside  of  the  store  were  in  the  rear  at  the  time,  or  some 
• 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    119 

of  them  might  have  been  killed.  An  interesting  question  is, 
Do  contractors  have  liability  insurance  for  men  not  in  their 
employ  ? 

LIENS 

Variety.  —  The  laws  relating  to  liens  in  one  state  may  differ 
in  some  important  parts  from  those  in  another.  Only  a  few 
general  principles  can  be  laid  down. 

Personal  Responsibility.  —  Some  contractors  would  like  to 
see  all,  lien  laws  abolished,  and  the  building  business  con- 
ducted upon  the  same  principles  as  the  wholesale  grocery 
one.  Then  the  contractor  would  be  selected  according  to  his 
reputation  for  fair  dealing  and  responsibility.  As  it  is,  the 
material  men,  while  naturally  anxious  to  deal  only  with 
reputable  contractors  who  pay  promptly,  are  willing  to  supply 
almost  anyone  with  what  he  needs,  and  if  he  does  not  pay 
they  can  come  back  on  the  property. 

The  dealers  object  to  taking  away  this  good  security;  the 
mechanics  consider  that  their  wages  are  also  more  certain 
under  this  system;  and  between  these  two  powers  and  con- 
tractors who  like  the  present  status,  the  lien  laws  remain 
on  the  statute  books. 

Character.  — •  Much  trouble  is  avoided  by  building  only  for 
those  upon  whom  one  can  rely.  While  contracting  I  never 
had  occasion  to  file  even  a  single  lien.  After  finishing  a  con- 
tract for  one  man  who  was  rather  "  shaky,"  and  getting  settled 
with  difficulty,  he  started  another  large  building,  and  asked 
for  figures  which  were  not  given.  The  building  went  up,  and 
every  contractor  who  did  any  work  had  to  file  a  lien,  fight  for 
years,  and  pay  legal  expenses  to  get  a  small  part  of  his  money. 
The  loan  ahead  of  the  contractors  was  too  large. 

Amount.  —  In  some  states  the  amount  of  the  lien  has  to  be 
at  least  $25. 

Who  Can  File.  —  Any  supply  dealer,  contractor,  subcontrac- 
tor, or  one  who  furnished  labor  or  material  on  the  building, 
in  carrying  out  a  contract  or  agreement  with  the  owner  or 
his  agent  has  a  right  to  a  lien  on  the  building,  in  so  far 
as  such  owner  may  himself  have  the  title.  Thus  a  mortgage 
comes  ahead  of  a  lien  if  filed  before  any  work  whatever  is 
started  on  the  building;  and  the  amount  of  the  mortgage  has 
to  be  deducted  before  finding  out  how  much  interest  the 


120     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

owner  has  in  the  property.  This  interest  only  would  be 
subject  to  the  lien. 

Put  in  Place.  —  The  supreme  court  of  Michigan  has  decided 
that  a  lien  cannot  be  filed  on  materials  ordered  but  not  used 
in  the  construction  of  the  building.  Special  mill  work  might 
be  all  prepared  and  even  delivered  on  the  site,  but  if  not 
installed  when  the  crash  came  there  would  be  no  claim. 

The  Property  Held.  —  The  lien  attaches  to  the  property  at 
the  time  of  filing,  no  matter  who  owns  it.  It  is  the  property 
itself  that  is  held,  and  not  the  person  who  may  have  owned  it 
when  the  work  was  done.  This  is  why  it  is  dangerous  to 
buy  property  without  finding  out  if  there  are  any  liens 
on  it. 

Time  of  Filing.  —  In  most  states  a  mechanic  or  laborer, 
supply  dealer,  or  subcontractor,  must  file  a  lien  inside  of 
thirty  days  after  the  work  is  done  or  material  furnished. 
The  general  contractor  usually  has  twice  as  long,  and  this, 
of  course,  applies  to  subcontractors  when  they  sign  a  con- 
tract directly  with  the  owner.  A  general  contractor  can 
sometimes  extend  his  own  time  if  he  has  been  wise  enough 
in  doubtful  cases  to  do  that  which  he  should  not  have  done 
by  leaving  undone  that  which  he  should  have  done;  and,  as 
already  noted,  he  can  help  out  a  subcontractor  by  ordering  a 
small  amount  of  material  or  labor. 

Filing. —  If  a  lien  has  to  be  filed,  the  best  way  is  to  go  to 
a  lawyer  and  have  him  make  it  out.  Good  blanks  may  be 
found,  and  the  services  of  a  lawyer  dispensed  with,  but  the 
filling  out  has  to  be  carefully  done.  A  legal  description  of 
the  premises  must  be  given;  the  name  of  the  owner  or  person 
in  possession  of  the  property,  such  as  lessee,  whose  agreement 
with  the  real  owrner  may  oblige  him  to  pay  all  taxes  and  take 
care  of  all  suits;  the  amount  of  money  claimed;  when  the 
money  is  due,  and  to  wrhom  due;  the  residence  of  the  claimant; 
and  probably  a  certificate  of  baptism.  Do  not  leave  out  the 
"  the "  in  any  place,  or  put  in  an  "  e "  too  many,  for  the 
St.  Louis  boodlers  went  free  on  this  account.  We  should 
always  remember  that  the  Englishman  in  the  novel  was  not 
far  astray  when  he  said,  "  The  law  is  a  hass." 

Action.  —  After  filing  a  lien,  action  must  be  taken  to  fore- 
close it  inside  of  a  year  unless  the  lien  is  continued  by  an 
order  of  the  court.  The  right  to  file  is  lost  if  the  thirty 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     121 

or  sixty  days,  or  whatever  the  period  is,  are  allowed  to  pass 
without  filing. 

Waivers.  —  When  an  owner  borrows  money  to  build,  the 
loan  companies  naturally  try  to  get  in  ahead  of  anybody 
else,  either  by  filing  their  mortgage  first,  or  by  getting  the 
contractors  and  material  men  to  sign  waivers  of  their  right 
to  file  a  lien.  This  is  a  species  of  what  has  been  called 
"  contracting  out,"  or  individual  setting  aside  of  statute  law. 
Generally  speaking,  it  should  not  be  allowed.  If  the  law  is 
good  it  should  stand  for  everybody,  and  it  should  be  pre- 
sumed to  be  too  good  for  any  one  man  to  set  it  aside. 

The  lien  for  wages  would  still  stand,  for  it  is  seldom  that 
each  worker  is  asked  to  waive  that. 

The  taking  of  a  note  from  an  owner  for  the  amount  of  the 
claim  is  held,  as  a  rule,  to  waive  the  right  to  file  a  lien. 

First  Claim.  —  All  work  on  a  building  takes  precedence  of 
the  mortgage  filed  after  the  first  spadeful  of  earth  is  turned 
up  on  the  contract.  Thus,  the  brickwork  might  be  finished 
before  the  mortgage  was  filed,  and  the  plaster  afterwards. 
Nevertheless,  the  plaster  would  come  in  ahead  of  the  mortgage. 

PARTNERSHIP 

Responsibility.  —  Each  individual  is  responsible  for  all  the 
debts  of  the  firm  unless  the  articles  of  agreement  set  a  limit. 

This  means  that  if  C  has  no  money  or  property,  and  D  has 
$10,000,  either  in  the  business  or  in  property  outside  of  it, 
and  anything  goes  wrong  that  requires  $10,000  to  satisfy 
the  claim,  D  loses  his  whole  amount. 

D  might  avoid  a  danger  of  this  kind  by  special  articles 
of  agreement  putting  his  liability  at  whatever  amount  he  thinks 
fit.  But  if  he  should  set  a  limit  of  $1,000,  suppose,  the 
bonding  companies  wrould  refuse  to  go  on  a  large  bond,  and 
he  would  have  to  restrict  himself  to  smaller  and  less  profitable 
contracts.  Then  his  credit  would  not  be  so  good  with  the 
dealers.  If  he  is  not  willing  to  risk  his  own  property,  why 
should  they  risk  theirs  on  his  good  faith?  If  it  is  said  that 
character  as  much  as  the  amount  of  capital  determines  credit, 
the  material  men  might  fitly  ask  what  kind  of  character  it 
is  that  keeps  its  own  property  beyond  the  reach  of  danger 
and  risks  theirs.  If  he  is  afraid  of  his  partner,  C,  he  should 
separate  from  him. 


122     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Specials.  —  The  statutes  of  the  state  must  be  complied  with 
in  order  to  avoid  danger  in  limited  or  special  partnerships. 
Corporations  are  organized  on  this  basis  of  limited  liability. 
Each  one  is  responsible  only  for  the  amount  of  his  stock. 
This  is  why  so  many  firms  are  incorporated.  Yet  about  4,000 
incorporated  firms  let  their  rights  lapse  in  Nebraska  in  the 
end  of  1909  rather 'than  pay  a  small  tax  levied  on  all  cor- 
porations. They  did  not  seem  to  think  the  corporate  form  of 
doing  business  as  worth  the  difference  asked  for  above  the 
untaxed  partnership. 

Nominal.  —  There  is  what  is  known  as  a  nominal  partner. 
That  is  one  who  lends  his  name  to  help  out  a  firm,  but  has 
no  real  interest  in  it — except  that  he  is  liable  for  all  debts 
and  contracts. 

A  Silent  Partner  may  keep  his  connection  with  the  firm 
silent  enough,  but  if  it  becomes  known  he  also  is  held  for  all 
debts  and  contracts. 

Dissolution.  —  After  a  man  has  left  a  partnership  he  should 
not  allow  his  name  to  be  used  in  it  unless  by  special  agreement 
which  should  be  filed  for  public  record. 

Responsibility.  —  The  acts  of  one  partner  bind  all  the 
others;  and  this  goes  so  far  that  if  a  man  deceives  outsiders 
and  gets  them  to  advance  money  or  anything  of  that  kind 
under  the  impression  that  it  is  for  the  firm  account,  yet  be 
only  for  his  own  advantage,  the  other  members  of  the  firm 
are  held.  Their  business  was  to  have  held  such  "a  man  by  a 
rope,  if  necessary,  and  not  turn  him  loose  on  an  unsophis- 
ticated and  credulous  public.  They  are  held  and  duly  bound 
to  the  public  for  the  character  of  this  member  of  their  fi«rm. 
For  this  reason,  good  character  is  an  important  asset  in  a 
partnership.  When  partners  become  suspicious  of  each  other, 
it  is  time  to  dissolve. 

Commercial  Paper.  —  If  one  member  signs  his  name  to 
notes  or  such  negotiable  papers  that  bear  on  their  face  to  be 
for  the  benefit  of  the  firm,  all  the  partners  are  liable  for  the 
payment.  The  private  notes  of  a  partner  may  also  be  charged 
to  the  firm  unless  those  who  buy  them  are  informed  that  they 
are  created  solely  on  individual  account.  But  one  partner 
cannot  bind  the  firm  by  a  deed,  which  must  be  signed  by  all. 

Confusion.  —  Each  partner  should,  as  a  rule,  keep  an  in- 
dividual account  as  soon  as  sufficient  money  is  on  hand. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     123 

It    is    not    wise    to    separate    $123.13    into    several    accounts, 
however. 

Beginning1.  —  Articles  should  be  drawn  for  partnership,  and 
should  not  be  signed  till  the  partnership  funds  are  in  the 
bank.  The  partnership  begins  upon  the  execution  of  the 
articles,  unless  a  special  time  is  set. 

ENDING   OF  PARTNERSHIPS 

Death.  —  The  woman  in  the  novel  said,  "  Death  ends  all  " ; 
and  it  also  ends  a  partnership  unless  the  articles  of  agree- 
ment are  arranged  to  the  contrary. 

Withdrawal.  —  If  no  time  of  expiration  of  partnership  is 
stated  any  partner  can  leave  the  firm  when  it  suits  him  to 
do  so;  and  he  can  always  prevent  the  firm  from  binding  him 
to  future  contracts  even  if  a  time  limit  is  set.  But  in  both 
cases  he  is  held  liable  for  unfinished  contracts,  and  if  he 
leaves  at  such  a  time  or  in  such  a  way  as  to  embarrass  the 
firm  he  may  be  sued  for  damages.  There  is,  or  should  be, 
reason  in  all  things — even  in  law. 

On  the  expiration  of  articles  new  ones  should  be  made  before 
going  further  ahead. 

Changes.  —  When  changes  are  made  involving  the  retire- 
ment of  one  partner,  limiting  liability,  or  anything  of  a  like 
nature,  public  notice  should  be  given  so  that  those  with  whom 
the  firm  deals  should  understand  the  new  condition  of  affairs 
and  govern  themselves  accordingly. 

The  Bankruptcy  of  one  partner  dissolves  the  firm.  A  new 
agreement  has  to  be  made  among  those  who  are  left. 

Notice.  —  When  a  partnership  is  dissolved  public  notice 
should  be  given  and  also  sent  to  all  who  have  had  dealings 
with  the  firm.  One  member  of  the  firm  should  be  given 
authority  to  settle  up  all  affairs. 

Old  Firm.  —  It  is  often  dangerous  to  enter  a  firm  already 
established.  A  careful  examination  of  its  affairs  should  first 
be  made  by  one  competent  to  do  it.  A  new  partner  becomes 
liable  for  all  the  debts,  contracts,  lawsuits,  entanglements, 
liens,  and  everything  else  of  the  old  firm. 

Equal  Shares.  —  If  no  special  agreement  to  the  contrary  is 
made,  all  partners  must  give  their  whole  time  to  the  business 
of  the  firm,  and  all  money  gained  in  whatever  business  way 


124    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

by  partners  becomes  common  property.     Here  law  and  common 
sense  join. 

If  one  party  has  more  capital  in  the  business  than  another, 
or  others,  the  proper  arrangement  should  be  made  to  pay 
him  interest  on  his  extra  capital,  but  after  that  is  attended 
to,  all  gain  made  by  each  while  attending  to  business  that 
is  not  of  a  private  nature,  becomes  partnership  property,  to 
be  divided  in  the  manner  set  forth  in  the  articles  of  agree- 
ment, or  share  and  share  alike.  Gain  is  shared  in  a  partner- 
ship, and  so  is  loss,  and  there  are  few  businesses  which  do  not 
occasionally  meet  the  latter. 

LANDLORD    AND    TENANT 

Investments.  —  Many  contractors  put  up  houses  for  rent. 
This  is  often  a  profitable  way  of  investing  money,  but  not 
unfrequently  there  are  better  ways.  Few  figure  up  the  rate 
of  depreciation  on  ordinary  buildings.  According  to  the 
government  figures,  a  frame  house  when  rented  is  supposed 
to  last  for  40  years.  This  means  that  before  figuring  profit 
on  the  investment,  a  deduction  of  2%  per  cent,  per  annum 
should  be  made.  Of  course,  with  good  care  a  house  should 
last  much  longer.  The  same  government  figures  are  2  per 
cent,  when  inhabited  by  the  owner.  But  even  at  this  rate  a 
$3,000  house  costs  the  owner  $5  per  month. 

Then  there  are  repairs,  taxes,  vacancies,  and  insurance  to 
be  considered.  Some  say  that  there  are  better  investments. 
But  it  often  happens  that  a  contractor  has  old  material  that 
he  can  work  up  to  good  advantage  in  his  own  new  houses. 
He  can  build  cheaper  than  anyone  else.  Some  of  the  common 
laws  relating  to  landlord  and  tenant  are  set  down  here  for 
the  use  of  builders. 

Lease.  —  A  lease  for  a  year  or  less  needs  no  written  agree- 
ment, although  it  is  better  to  have  one.  Printed  forms  are 
cheap. 

Leases  for  more  than  three  years  must  be  recorded.  A 
lease  for  life  or  a  long  period  must  be  signed  and  sealed 
like  a  deed  or  any  other  legal  instrument,  and  recorded. 

When  a  lease  expires  and  no  new  arrangement  is  made,  the 
tenant  holds  the  property  for  another  term  of  the  same 
length  as  before,  and  on  the  same  conditions.  In  other  words, 
the  old  lease  is  considered  renewed. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     125 

When  a  tenant  turns  over  his  lease  to  someone  else,  even 
with  the  landlord's  consent,  he  still  remains  liable  for  the 
rent  unless  his  lease  is  canceled. 

Continuation.  —  Without  some  special  agreement  as  to  time 
a  tenant  holds  over  from  year  to  year.  Under  the  method 
common  in  many  parts  of  the  country  of  renting  from 
month  to  month  only,  the  tenant  has  to  give  up  possession 
on  one  month's  notice,  unless  the  statute  law '  decrees  other- 
wise, as  in  winter,  for  example. 

Who  Pays  Taxes.  —  In  some  leases,  such  as  the  Astor  ones 
in  New  York,  the  tenant  pays  all  taxes  and  makes  all  repairs. 
Such  conditions  must  be  stated  in  the  lease. 

Underletting.  —  In  making  leases  the  landlord  should  be 
careful  about  underletting.  Unless  forbidden,  the  tenant  can 
sublet  to  whomsoever  he  pleases.  The  tenant  by  the  month 
cannot  do  this,  but  he  may  have  as  many  roomers  as  he 
likes,  in  default  of  special  agreement.  A  landlord  cannot 
put  out  a  subtenant  unless  he  has  given  him  the  same  notice 
that  the  tenant  himself  receives. 

There  is  one  danger  in  cities  with  renting  houses,  and 
especially  with  subletting.  I  remember  that  part  of  a  fine 
block  just  finished  was  rented  to  a  woman  of  the  wrong 
character  by  an  agent  who  was  a  stranger  in  the  city,  and 
was  taken  in.  The  owner  happened  to  notice  the  matter  in 
time,  and  the  lease  was  canceled.  Renting  to  this  wrong  kind 
of  tenants  not  only  runs  down  property  in  respectable  dis- 
tricts, but  is  contrary  to  state  law. 

Married  Women.  —  In  most  states  a  married  woman  is  now 
allowed  to  lease  her  property  the  same  as  a  man.  In  states 
where  she  cannot  make  a  contract  she  should  not  be  accepted 
as  a  tenant. 

Guardian.  —  Care  should  be  exercised  in  making  a  lease 
with  a  minor.  When  he  comes  to  his  majority  the  lessee  is 
still  held,  but  the  minor  may  back  out.  If  he  receives  rent 
after  he  is  twenty-one,  however,  he  also  is  "  held  and  firmly 
bound." 

Mortgage.  —  A  lease  on  mortgaged  property,  given  after 
the  mortgage  is  filed,  terminates  if  there  is  a  foreclosure. 

Tenancy  begins  from  the  day  possession  is  taken.  Land- 
lords who  rent  property  should  have  a  definite  understanding 
as  to  when  the  payment  is  to  be  made. 


126     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Improvements.  —  The  tenant  should  not  put  up  buildings 
with  foundations  sunk  in  the  ground,  or  make  permanent 
improvements  on  the  property,  for  they  cannot  be  removed, 
and  no  compensation  need  be  given  for  them.  Whatever  is 
fixed  to  the  land  belongs  to  it. 

Insurance  Policies  are  issued  for  loss  of  rent  during  the 
time  that  burnt  property  is  being  rebuilt. 

DEEDS 

Forms.  —  There  are  plenty  of  blank  forms  for  deeds,  and 
thus  there  is  no  excuse  for  attempting  to  write  them  out. 
They  must  be  signed,  sealed,  witnessed,  acknowledged,  and 
recorded.  If  not  recorded  promptly  a  new  deed  might  be 
made  out  to  someone  else  and  recorded  first.  Then  the  rascal 
wrho  sold  the  property  twice  has  to  be  found  and  prosecuted. 
He  may  have  died  since. 

But  deeds  are  often  unrecorded  for  long  periods,  where  the 
party  who  bought  knows  that  there  is  no  risk,  and  wishes  to 
keep  the  transfer  secret. 

When  deeds  or  other  legal  papers  are  handed  in  for 
record,  the  public  officer  marks  down  the  exact  time  on  the 
margin,  and  if  another  instrument  is  presented,  it  is  easy  to 
discover  which  was  first. 

A  Notary  usually  acknowledges  deeds,  but  other  officers  can 
do  so,  such  as  judges  and  clerks  of  court.  Most  states  have 
special  forms  of  acknowledgment,  which  must  be  used.  All 
state  enactments  must  be  complied  with. 

In  some  states  one  witness  is  sufficient,  and  a  seal  is 
necessary;  in  others,  two  witnesses  are  required.  In  almost 
all  states  corporations  must  use  their  seal. 

Abstract.  —  Before  taking  a  deed  and  paying  the  money 
an  abstract  of  the  title  to  the  property  should  be  had.  This 
traces  the  ownership  back,  in  many  cases,  clear  to  the 
original  grant  by  the  United  States.  In  others,  a  terminus 
is  found  beyond  which  all  know  that  things  are  satisfactory. 
Happy  is  that  state  which  has  adopted  the  Torrens  system  of 
guaranteeing  titles. 

This  abstract  shows  whether  or  not  all  the  taxes  are  paid, 
and  if  there  are  any  liens,  judgments,  clouds,  or  troubles  of 
any  kind  standing  against  the  property. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    127 

Guaranty.  —  Some  abstract  companies  not  only  make  the 
search,  but  guarantee  the  title  for  an  extra  charge.  But 
all  over  the  land  titles  searched  and  certified  by  the  ablest 
abstract  "  sleuths "  are  disputed.  Some  day,  in  some  way 
or  another,  there  will  have  to  be  a  simplification  of  the 
whole  disgusting  legal  mess.  No  civilization  can  afford  to 
keep  130,000  lawyers  doing  what  should  be  useless  work,  with 
a  large  army  of  court  and  office  help  to  assist  them.  Peter 
the  Great  said  that  there  was  only  one  lawyer  in  Russia, 
and  when  he  got  home  he  meant  to  hang  him.  This  policy 
would  be  too  drastic  in  these  United  States,  but  we  might 
put  them  to  a  better  use  than  we  do  now.  Turn  in  whatever 
direction  one  will,  this  "  law "  sewer  seems  only  to  smell  the 
stronger. 

Kind  of  a  Deed.  —  A  general  warranty  deed  is  best,  as  it 
guarantees  the  purchaser  against  all  claim  on  the  property 
of  whatever  nature.  This  is  valuable  to  the  extent  that  the 
person  who  makes  it  stands  ready  to  fight  a  claim. 

A  quit-claim  deed  merely  surrenders  all  interest  the  maker 
has  in  the  property,  and  guarantees  nothing. 

Matrimony.  —  A  wife  must  join  with  her  husband  in  making 
a  deed.  In  this  land  of  sorely  tangled  matrimonial  complica- 
tions, it  is  sometimes  hard  to  get  the  lady  to  toe  the  mark, 
or  even  to  find  her.  Again,  there  are  men  who  pass  them- 
selves off  as  unmarried  when  they  are.  There  have  been  cases 
of  fighting  over  titles  for  generations,  owing  to  the  dower  right 
that  a  woman  has  in  her  husband's  estate. 

When  a  married  woman  sells  property  her  husband  should 
join  in  the  deed.  When  a  man  turns  over  his  property  to 
his  wife  he  should  not  do  it  direct,  but  as  if  he  meant  it  to 
land  anywhere  else  than  near  her.  He  should  first  "  sell " 
it  to  someone  outside  of  his  family  preferably,  and  then 
through  him  to  her,  and  thus  bring  it  home  once  more. 

Do  Not  Alter  a  deed  after  it  is  made  and  executed.  Fill 
in  only  the  blank  spaces,  and  do  not  interline  or  erase,  unless 
you  make  a  special  acknowledgment  of  the  fact  and  have 
it  witnessed. 

MORTGAGES 

A  Mortgage  never  sleeps.  It  comes  first,  unless  there  are 
liens  ahead  of  it. 


128     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Notary.  —  This  instrument  should  be  signed,  sealed,  etc., 
just  the  same  as  a  deed.  The  one  who  supplies  the  money 
records  the  instrument. 

Release.  —  When  the  money  is  paid  according  to  the  terms 
of  the  mortgage,  it  is  discharged  by  sending  a  release  to  the 
court  of  record.  A  charge  is  made  for  recording  the  release. 
Or  an  entry  may  be  made  in  the  margin  of  the  original 
record  by  the  owner  of  the  mortgage  or  his  attorney,  or 
representative  in  the  presence  of  the  public  official. 

Description.  —  The  property  mortgaged  must  be  clearly  de- 
scribed, and  the  time  when  the  debt  becomes  due.  A  de- 
scription of  the  notes  is  also  given.  In  general,  the  safest 
way  is  to  get  a  lawyer  or  real  estate  agent  to  do  the  work. 
A  deed  is  easier  made  out  than  a  mortgage. 

Foreclosure.  —  If  a  foreclosure  is  made,  the  mortgage  is 
first  satisfied,  and  then  the  owner  gets  what  is  left  at  public 
sale,  after  paying  interest,  costs,  and  so  on. 

A  Fire  Insurance  Policy  is  usually  turned  over  to  the  one 
who  supplies  the  money,  or  the  mortgagee.  He  comes  first 
in  case  of  fire  also.  The  insurance  companies  must  be 
notified  when  a  mortgage  is  placed  on  property,  for  their 
contract  is  with  a  person  and  not  with  the  property  of  itself. 
Their  policy  is  different  from  a  lien  in  this  respect.  A  lien 
is  with  the  property,  but  an  insurance  policy  is  with  the 
person  named  in  it  only,  unless  it  is  endorsed  over  to  another 
with  the  consent  of  the  company.  If  a  part  change  of  owner- 
ship is  made,  as  when  a  mortgage  is  given,  the  company  must 
be  notified  that  another  person  has  acquired  an  interest  in 
the  property. 

Notes  are  usually  given  for  the  principal  and  interest  on 
a  mortgage.  They  should  be  taken  up  when  the  payments 
are  made,  and  canceled.  The  mortgage  is  given  to  secure 
them. 

Chattel  Mortgage.  —  This  kind  of  an  instrument  should 
never  be  given  for  more  than  a  year.  It  should  be  signed, 
sealed,  witnessed,  and  recorded,  and  insurance  should  be  kept 
up  on  the  goods,  which  ought  to  be  carefully  listed.  The 
obligation  still  stands  against  the  maker,  although  the  goods 
are  burnt  or  destroyed.  All  payments  made  upon  install- 
ments should  be  endorsed  upon  the  instrument. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    129 

FIBE  INSURANCE 

Location  of  Property.  —  In  a  fire  insurance  policy  the 
property  insured  to  you  personally  must  remain  in  the 
location  described.  If  you  move  it,  insurance  cannot  be 
collected  in  case  of  loss. 

See  Agent.  —  In  case  of  anything  affecting  title  to  property, 
as  a  mortgage,  go  to  the  agent  and  arrange  matters.  There 
is  no  trouble  doing  so. 

Vacancies.  —  Take  only  such  a  policy  as  permits  a  vacancy 
of  a  reasonable  duration  without  a  special  permit.  Life  is 
too  short  to  run  to  an  agent  every  time  a  tenant  leaves  a 
house.  In  many  cases  he  leaves  without  paying  rent,  and 
the  house  may  stand  vacant  for  days  before  the  owner  knows 
about  it.  Should  it  burn  down  then,  under  some  policies,  he 
would  get  nothing. 

Do  not  accept  a  policy  that  cuts  down  the  amount  insured 
about  25  per  cent,  when  the  house  is  vacant.  If  it  burns  down 
then  it  would  cost  you  just  as  much  to  rebuild  as  if  the 
tenant  had  been  burnt  inside  of  it.  There  are  better  policies 
than  that  on  the  market. 

When  there  are  more  policies  than  one,  have  the  blanks 
filled  up  in  such  a  way  that  there  will  be  no  trouble  getting 
an  adjustment.  The  written  matter  should  correspond. 

See  that  a  permit  is  given  for  additional  insurance  on  ALT. 
the  policies  if  there  are  more  than  one  on  the  property. 

In  case  of  loss  by  fire  notify  the  local  agent  at  once. 

We  like  to  stand  by  our  home  companies  in  all  lines. 
Nevertheless,  with  fire  insurance  it  must  be  confessed  that  an 
old  wealthy  company  is  safer  than  a  local  new  one  with 
limited  capital.  We  remember  the  state  of  affairs  in  San 
Francisco.  A  local  company  is  easily  wiped  out. 

It  is  said  that  four  out  of  five  of  the  insurance  companies 
in  the  United  States  have  either  failed  or  retired. 

One  company  sends  out  the  following  card: 

WHAT  PEOPLE  WHO  INSURE    SHOULD  KNOW   AND   DO 

A  policy  of  fire  insurance  can  be  violated  in  the  following 
ways  : 

1.  Failure  to  pay  the  premium  at  the  proper  time. 

2.  Change  of   title,   or   ownership   by   sale,   gift,   marriage 


130     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

settlement,  device — any  way  but  by  descent — without  consent 
of  the  company. 

3.  Mortgaging  the  property  insured,  real  or  personal,  when 
prohibited    by    conditions   of    the    policy,    without    consent   of 
the  company. 

4.  Foreclosure  proceedings  without  consent  of  the  company. 

5.  False    statements    in    applications     (when    taken)     re- 
lating to  title,  incumbrance,  and  other  facts  material  to  the 
risk. 

6.  Other  insurance  without  consent  of  the  company. 

7.  Permitting  buildings   insured  to  become  vacant  or  un- 
occupied   for    more    than    ten    days    without    consent    of    the 
company. 

8.  Taking  a  new  partner  without  consent  of  the  company. 

9.  Increase  of   risk  by  keeping  prohibited   articles   on  the 
premises  or  by  change  of  occupancy  of  the  premises  insured. 

10.  Removal  of  personal  property  to  a  new  location  with- 
out consent  of  the  company. 

11.  Erection  of  an  exposure  to  the  property  insured  without 
consent  of  the  company. 

BANK    CHECKS 

Checks  or  Drafts  must  be  presented  for  payment  within  a 
reasonable  time.  I  know  of  cases  where  checks  of  a  railroad 
company  were  held  for  several  years.  The  holders  had  more 
confidence  in  the  stability  of  the  companies  than  in  the 
banks ;  and  when  the  era  of  illegal  "  cashier's  checks "  came 
on,  their  foresight  was  justified. 

Endorsement.  —  When  you  endorse  a  check  you  guarantee 
its  payment,  but  you  can  insist  that  the  check  be  presented 
at  once,  or  next  day  at  furthest. 

The  name  should  be  written  about  three  inches  from  the 
top  to  allow  for  filing,  but  if  another  name  is  already  written, 
put  yours  below  that. 

Certified.  —  When  a  check  is  certified  the  amount  is  taken 
out  of  the  owner's  account.  If  you  require  a  larger  or 
smaller  certified  check  do  not  destroy  the  first  one  under 
any  circumstances,  but  take  it  to  the  bank  and  surrender 
it  for  a  new  one.  If  you  do  not  return  it,  the  bank  is  justified 
in  asking  for  a  bond  of  indemnity  in  case  it  should  turn  up— 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     131 

and  all  this  regardless  of  your  explanations,  telling  why  and 
when  you  destroyed  it. 

Signatures.  —  Something  is  said  in  Chapter  XIV  about 
keeping  clear  of  the  forger  and  check  raiser  that  need  not 
be  repeated  here.  But  there  is  one  thing  about  a  forged 
check  that  many  do  not  know:  if  the  bank  pay  a  forged 
check  it  cannot  charge  the  amount  to  the  depositor  whose 
name  has  been  forged,  but  it  may  recover  the  money  from 
the  one  who  has  innocently  presented  the  check,  and  to  whom 
the  money  was  paid,  provided  the  demand  for  the  return 
is  made  immediately.  Therefore,  it  is  dangerous  to  accept 
forged  checks  in  payment  for  anything  and  present  them  at 
the  bank. 

Dating.  —  Do  not  date  a  check  ahead  or  for  more  than 
you  have  in  the  bank,  even  if  the  person  you  give  it  to 
promises  not  to  present  it.  Average  experience  shows  that 
he  will. 

Figures  should  be  made  very  distinct,  although  in  law  they 
are  of  less  consequence  than  writing. 

Alteration.  —  Do  not  alter  a  check,  but  make  a  new  one. 
Paper  is  cheap.  An  altered  check  may  make  the  bank  look 
suspiciously  at  it. 

Spelling-.  —  If  your  name  on  a  check  is  spelled  wrong,  and 
it  is  clearly  meant  for  you,  write  out  your  signature  as 
the  check  shows  it,  and  then  put  your  correct  one  below  it. 

Some  banks  insist  that  even  checks  payable  to  yourself 
should  be  endorsed  on  the  back. 

Overdrawing.  —  Banks  are  not  permitted  to  allow  cus- 
tomers to  overdraw  their  accounts.  After  all,  it  is  rather 
an  informal  way  of  borrowing  a  few  dollars.  It  is  best  to 
borrow  in  the  regular  manner. 

NOTES 

Mature  of  a  Note.  —  An  acknowledgment  of  a  debt  is  not 
sufficient  to  make  a  note  or  any  commercial  paper  that  may 
be  bought  and  sold.  There  must  be  a  promise  to  pay  or  an 
order  on  someone  to  pay. 

Interest.  —  Notes  bear  interest  only  when  so  stated. 

Date.  —  A  note  should  be  correctly  dated. 

Time.  —  If  the  time  of  payment  is  not  inserted  a  note  is 
held  payable  on  demand. 


132     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Data.  —  A  note  should  specify  the  amount  of  money  to  be 
paid,  and  to  whom  it  is  to  be  paid,  or  order,  and  state  that 
it  is  for  value  received. 

Place.  —  The  place  of  payment  should  be  stated  on  the  note. 

Cancellation.  —  When  a  note  is  paid  it  should  be  canceled, 
or  else  it  may  have  to  be  paid  twice. 

Endorser.  —  If  the  maker  of  a  note  fails  to  pay,  the  one 
who  endorses  it  is  liable. 

Protest.  —  When  a  note  is  protested,  notice  should  at  once 
be  sent  to  all  who  endorse  it. 

Illegal  Note.  —  A  note  obtained  by  fraud  or  from  a  drunken 
person  cannot  be  collected.  A  note  made  on  Sunday  is  void. 

A  Notice  to  One  Person  in  a  firm  is  sufficient  on  a  partner- 
ship note. 

liability.  —  An  endorser  is  not  liable  if  notice  of  a  note's 
dishonor  is  not  mailed  or  served  on  him  inside  of  twenty-four 
hours.  Mailing,  as  usual,  does  not  mean  delivery  from  the 
mails,  but  putting  in  the  postoffice. 

WILLS 

Obligation.  —  All  contractors  who  have  any  property  should 
make  their  wills  unless  they  are  satisfied  with  the  disposition 
under  state  laws.  They  may  "  contract  out "  in  the  will 
business. 

No  Danger.  —  A  will  is  not  necessarily  a  death  warrant,  as 
some  seem  to  imagine.  Many  a  man  has  made  one  and  sur- 
vived for  years.  There  are  people  who  have  become  so  used 
to  stories  of  wills  made  on  deathbeds  that  the  idea  of  sending 
for  a  lawyer  to  make  out  theirs  always  brings  with  it  the 
other  dread  of  asking  the  preacher  to  come  also,  and  do 
what  he  can  for  a  case  considerably  below  par. 

Technicalities.  —  Of  course  we  all  know  that  in  these  days 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  anything  to  stand  the  test  of 
the  courts.  The  "  e "  is  put  in  where  it  should  not  be,  and 
the  "  the  "  is  left  out,  and  there  is  no  legality  in  it.  Still, 
it  is  well  to  say  how  you  wish  to  have  your  property  disposed 
of.  In  most  cases  wills  are  undisputed. 

Some  of  the  finest  lawyers  in  the  United  States  have  made 
their  own  wills,  or  made  them  for  others,  and  the  courts 
have  overthrown  them.  Even  Samuel  J.  Tilden  could  not 
make  one  to  suit  the  fastidious  judges.  Judging  by  these  and 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     133 

many  other  cases  of  national  interest,  and  some  of  local  in- 
terest in  most  cities,  the  advice  you  get  in  this  little  treatise 
would  appear  to  be  about  as  valuable  or  worthless  as  if  you 
paid  a  high  price  for  it  to  the  best  lawyer  you  know. 

Plainness.  —  In  the  first  place  use  simple  language,  and 
precious  little  of  that.  Act  as  if  every  word  were  worth  a 
thousand  dollars.  The  trouble  with  most  lawyers  here  is 
that  they  know  too  much.  They  are  verbose,  tautological, 
"  windy,"  wordy,  and  full  to  the  chin  with  legal  phrases  that 
were  ancient  in  the  time  of  Csesar  Augustus. 

I  recently  saw  an  account  of  a  will  that  disposed  of  a 
great  deal  of  property  in  this  fashion,  "  I  leave  all  my 
property  to  my  wife,  and  appoint  her  executrix  without 
bond." 

On  February  9,  1910,  the  shortest  will  ever  filed  in  Kenton 
County,  Kentucky,  ran  thus :  "  I  leave  everything  of  which  I 
die  possessed  to  my  beloved  brother,  Justus  Goebel."  Even 
the  word  "  beloved "  might  have  been  left  out,  for  most 
people  would  take  that  for  granted. 

The  tendency  is  to  use  as  few  words  as  possible  in  will 
making,  and  thus  do  away  with  all  chance  of  misunderstand- 
ing. 

No  particular  form  of  words  is  required,  but  the  meaning 
of  the  will  must  be  clear.  If  more  than  one  sheet  is  used, 
which  should  seldom  be  the  case  with  the  will  of  a  contractor, 
every  sheet  should  be  numbered,  and  the  will  referred  to  as 
composed  of  sheets  1,  2,  3,  as  the  case  may  be.  But  if  you 
have  a  lawyer,  and  he  insists  on  pouring  out  language  from 
his  never  failing  reservoir,  seek  another,  or  make  out  the  will 
yourself.  You  will  make  less  of  a  botch  than  Mr.  Wordy 
Wiseman.  At  the  end  of  this  chapter  a  sample  of  his  work 
is  given  for  a  warning. 

Written.  —  In  most  states  a  will  must  be  in  writing. 
Should  a  contractor  fall  three  or  four  stories  he  is  apt  to 
regret  leaving  things  in  a  muddle  for  lawyers  to  fight  over. 

Signatures.  —  A  will  must  be  signed  in  the  presence  of  the 
witnesses.  In  some  states  two  '  witnesses  are  required ;  in 
others,  three.  The  one  who  makes  a  will — the  "  testator,"  our 
legal  friends  call  him — must  tell  the  witnesses  that  what  they 
are  signing  is  his  last  will  and  testament.  It  is  this  last 
word  that  scares  people,  but  it  has  no  more  to  do  with  things 


134     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

of  a  sacred  nature  than  the  other  one.  Strictly,  it  applies  to 
personal  property  only,  but  the  words  are  interchangeable. 

The  witnesses  must  sign  in  the  presence  of  the  testator, 
and  not  be  mentioned  as  receiving  anything  in  the  will  itself. 

In  some  states,  witnesses  must  also  sign  in  the  presence 
of  each  other.  They  should  write  their  address  on  the  will, 
although  this  is  not  compulsory.  The  idea  is  to  be  able  to 
find  them  in  case  the  testator  dies. 

A  Codicil  may  be  added  to  a  will  at  any  time,  and  changes 
made  in  the  disposition  of  the  property,  but  must  be  done  with 
the  same  number  of  witnesses  and  formalities  as  the  will 
itself. 

Property.  —  If  some  particular  piece  of  property  is  men- 
tioned in  a  will  and  it  is  sold  or  mortgaged,  the  one  to  whom 
it  was  going  would  be  short  that  much.  If  sold,  you  can 
certainly  not  leave  it  to  anyone.  A  codicil  can  be  added. 
When  leaving  all  property  to  a  certain  person  it  is  better, 
for  this  reason,  not  to  list  it. 

Marriage.  —  Upon  marriage,  a  new  will  should  be  made,  for 
the  wife  has  a  dower  right  for  one-half  to  one-third  of  the 
real  estate,  according  to  the  statutes  of  the  various  states, 
and  a  man  cannot  dispose  of  it.  "  Contracting  out  "  is  not 
allowed  in  this  particular  case.  The  lien  or  mortgage  holds 
till  death  or  divorce  do  us  part. 

Children.  —  The  birth  of  a  child  will  also  revoke  a  will, 
unless  provision  is  made  for  this  contingency. 

New  Will.  —  When  a  new  will  is  made  the  old  one  should 
be  destroyed.  There  has  been  no  end  of  trouble  on  this  earth 
with  old  wills. 

Words  to  Use.  —  If  the  meaning  is  clear  any  word  will 
serve,  but  "  devise "  is  the  word  for  real  property,  and 
"  bequeath  "  for  personal. 

Safekeeping.  —  In  most  counties  wills  are  received  at  the 
courthouse,  and  kept  free  of  charge,  in  what  should  be  a 
fireproof  building.  A  receipt  is  furnished,  and  the  old  will 
may  be  taken  out  at  any  time  and  changed,  or  a  new  one 
made.  It  is  better  here  than  in  a  safety  deposit  vault  or  a 
safe,  because  no  one  but  yourself  may  be  allowed  to  go  into 
the  vault,  and  the  owners  will  not  allow  even  your  wife  to 
get  in  there  after  your  death  without  an  order  from  the 
court.  If  a  will  is  kept  in  such  a  place  two  people  should 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     135 

be  allowed  access  to  it,  in  case  of  death,  or  some  arrangement 
made  to  get  it  when  required.  Wills  are  often  left  in  charge 
of  lawyers  so  that  they  may  be  produced  when  necessary. 

It  may  profit  some  to  read  what  is  told  elsewhere  in  this 
book  about  the  worthless  safes  of  San  Francisco. 

If  a  will  is  to  be  made  by  one's  self,  blank  forms  are 
easily  obtained,  made  out  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the 
state,  and  thus  better  than  any  special  instrument  that  a 
layman  could  make  for  himself.  A  New  York  form  should 
not  be  used  for  a  California  will;  for  there  may  be  require- 
ments in  one  state  that  make  the  blanks  of  the  other 
useless. 

Expense.  —  One  unpleasant  feature  of  the  settlement  of 
small  estates  is  the  expense  connected  with  it.  It  is  better 
to  trust  all  settlement  to  a  wife  or  husband,  if  there  is  no 
danger  of  the  rights  of  children  being  lost.  If  there  are  no 
debts  to  be  paid  the  best  way  is  to  leave  such  a  one  in  full 
control  without  bond,  which  means  another  expense  and  some- 
times difficulty.  If  an  executor  is  appointed  costs  begin  to 
run  up. 

Contract  Finished.  —  When  we  leave  this  world  we  leave  it 
for  good;  and,  as  a  rule,  we  ought  to  let  the  people  in  it 
"  run  "  it  to  suit  themselves.  Why  should  a  woman  be  for- 
bidden to  marry  again  without  losing  an  inheritance?  Or  a 
husband?  Let  widow  or  widower  marry  again  if  he  or  she 
chooses.  That  is  the  best  way  in  most  cases.  But  the  diffi- 
culty comes  with  children,  if  there  are  any. 

There  are  too  many  thousands  of  cases  in  evidence  where 
a  sensible  "  widow  woman  "  or  "  widower  man," — if  the  one, 
why  not  the  other? — has  selected  another  soul  mate  of  a 
tolerably  worthless  character,  and  practically  turned  over 
property  meant  to  protect  children,  from  what  is  a  severe 
struggle  at  times,  to  the  selfish  mercies  of  the  new  partner. 
Many  a  woman,  when  too  late,  has  bitterly  regretted  being 
left  in  full  control  of  property  that  she  sees  slipping  away 
from  her  children. 

If  it  is  left  in  trust  it  often  disappears  too,  and  that  is  a 
more  expensive  way  of  treating  a  fund  that  is  too  small  at 
the  best. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  a  woman  leaves  property  in  full 
control  of  her  husband,  trusting  him  with  the  interests  of 


136     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  children.  But  one  day,  after  the  loss  had  been  dulled, 
he  sees  Miss  Delilah  Pompadour,  and  the  old  story  begins. 

Mr.  Bellamy's  beautiful  earthly  paradise  is  not  here  yet, 
but  in  disgust  at  tons  of  legal  papers  and  a  general  mess  where 
such  a  state  as  Illinois  has  more  judges  than  all  England, 
Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales,  and  notwithstanding  we  see 
the  rights  of  children  trampled  on,  we  cannot  help  wishing 
that  we  had  some  simpler  and  less  expensive  system  than  the 
present  one. 

*  Dangers.  —  Executors,  administrators,  and  guardians  also 
have  their  troubles.  One  great  principle  of  their  office  is  to 
keep  the  money  from  the  estate,  or  trust,  apart  from  their 
own.  This  too  common  practice  of  mixing  the  funds  of  banks, 
estates,  etc.,  with  personal  accounts  has  been  the  ruin  of  many 
a  good  man. 

If  you  are  appointed  trustee,  guardian,  or  anything  of  that 
kind,  in  general  make  no  move  without  consulting  a  lawyer. 
Unless  there  is  a  good  reason  for  taking  this  particular  kind  of 
a  contract,  try  to  "  side-step  "  it.  When  the  minors  grow  old 
enough  they  may  demand  an  accounting.  If  you  have  taken 
legal  advice  the  lawyer  has  charged  you,  and  the  bill  has  had 
to  go  against  the  estate.  If  it  is  too  much  it  is  clear  that 
you  have  been  feeding  an  attorney — who  is  probably,  curiously 
enough,  your  uncle's  son— and  if  you  have  gone  ahead  on 
your  own  initiative  you  have  done  what  you  should  not  have 
done,  and  squandered  the  money  of  orphans.  In  any  case,  it 
would  conduce  to  good  feeling  all  around  if  you  would  ex- 
plain what  took  place  eleven  years  previously,  and  produce 
the  receipts.  Otherwise,  otherwise — 

Before  accepting  such  a  trust  you  should  read  the  following 
legal  definition  of  GIVING  from  Patten's  Monthly: 

If  a  man  were  to  give  another  an  orange,  he  would  merely 
say,  "  I  give  you  this  orange."  But  when  the  transaction  is 
entrusted  to  the  hands  of  a  lawyer  to  put  it  in  writing,  he 
adopts  this  form: 

I  hereby  give,  grant  and  convey  to  you,  all  and  singular,  my 
estate  and  interest,  right,  title,  claim  and  advantage  of  and 
in  the  said  orange,  together  with  all  its  rind,  skin,  juice, 
pulp  and  pips,  with  all  right  and  advantage  therein,  writh  full 
power  to  bite,  cut,  suck  or  otherwise  eat  the  said  orange, 
or  give  the  same  away,  as  fully  and  effectually  as  I,  the  said 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     137 

A.  B.  Smith,  am  now  entitled  to  bite,  cut,  suck  or  otherwise 
eat  the  said  orange,  or  give  the  same  away,  with  or  without 
its  rind,  skin,  juice,  pulp  and  pips;  anything  hereinbefore 
or  hereinafter,  in  any  deed  or  deeds,  instrument  or  instru- 
ments, of  whatever  kind  or  nature  soever,  to  the  contrary  in 
any  wise  notwithstanding. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
INSURANCE  AND  BONDS 

Two  Examples.  —  Once  when  discussing  the  subject  of  fire 
insurance  with  a  supply  man,  he  said  to  me  that  the  business 
that  would  not  pay  for  insurance  had  better  be  left  alone. 
Some  time  after  that  I  saw  his  great  warehouse,  filled  with 
valuable  building  material,  burned  to  the  ground.  The  cor- 
rectness of  his  theory  was  illustrated  in  flames. 

In  "  The  New  Building  Estimator "  there  is  a  note  about 
contractors  who  failed  to  keep  up  insurance  on  a  schoolhouse, 
after  the  contract  \vas  completed,  but  before  it  was  accepted 
or  paid  for,  naturally.  There  were  only  a  few  days  to  run, 
and  they  felt  safe.  In  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred  they 
would  have  been.  But  in  this  hundredth  case  they  were 
burned  out  and  put  on  the  shelf.  The  gamble  went  against 
them. 

Averages.  —  There  is  what  is  called  a  Law  of  Averages.  By 
this  law  you  might  escape  all  your  life  and  never  have  a  fire, 
for  your  neighbor  might  get  your  share  of  the  average,  in 
addition  to  his  own,  but -it  is  not  safe  to  trifle  with  a  risk 
of  that  kind.  Shakespeare  tells  us  of  those  who  seek  a  min- 
ute's mirth  and  pay  for  it  by  wailing  a  week;  and  the  con- 
tractor who  goes  without  fire  insurance  on  his  installed  work 
is  often  put  in  the  same  class.  He  keeps  a  dime  so  close  to 
his  eye  that  he  cannot  see  a  few  golden  eagles  beyond. 

Builders'  Risk.  —  The  Uniform  Contract  takes  care  of  this 
insurance  question  by  putting  the  responsibility  upon  the 
owner.  If  another  contract  is  used  the  owner  can  sometimes 
be  induced  to  take  out  his  permanent  insurance  on  the  work 
as  it  goes  along,  with  the  usual  permission  to  finish.  The 
main  idea  is  to  have  either  the  owner  or  the  contractor  attend 
to  this  vital  matter.  The  fire  loss  is  serious  all  over  the  land, 
and  anyone  might  get  caught  for  his  share,  and  something  over. 

138 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     139 

Accidents.  —  After  fire  comes  liability  for  accidents.  In 
some  countries  the  laws  are  strict  on  this  subject.  Both 
employers  and  employed  have  to  make  provision  for  annuities. 

There  is  no  country  where  human  life  is  so  wickedly  trifled 
with  as  here.  Every  year  we  kill,  cripple,  or  injure  about 
500,000  people.  Our  death  bill,  in  one  year  of  peace,  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  slain  and  wounded  throughout  the  terrible 
Russo-Japanese  war.  At  least  half  of  the  wicked  slaughter 
is  unnecessary.  In  less  than  three  months  about  400  miners 
were  killed  in  the  United  States,  1909-1910.  Their  deaths 
were  the  result  of  the  setting  aside  of  state  laws,  in  the  worst 
case,  and  probably  in  all.  Suppose  you  read  Everybody's 
Magazine  for  February,  1907. 

There  are  no  exact  statistics  as  to  the  building  trades.  Of 
accidents  of  this  kind  on  buildings  Everybody's  writer  says: 
"  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  they  are  preventible,  and  are  there- 
fore little  less  than  murder." 

In  1906  the  Ironworkers'  Union,  Chicago,  lost  156  out  of 
1,358  on  skyscrapers  and  bridges. 

Risk.  —  As  with  lightning,  no  one  knows  where  a  fatal 
accident  is  going  to  strike  next.  With  the  prospect  of  a  suit 
for  $50,000,  and  this  is  now  possible  in  some  states,  it  is  best 
to  take  out  insurance. 

The  large  construction  companies  and  experienced  contrac- 
tors in  smaller  businesses  understand  the  situation,  and  take 
no  chances,  but  a  warning  is  necessary  to  younger  or  more 
careless  ones. 

An  owner  takes  a  risk  in  giving  a  contract  to  a  builder  who 
carries  no  insurance  of  this  kind;  and  the  latter  has  to  watch 
to  whom  he  gives  his  subcontracts. 

Wrong  Idea.  —  It  is  not  insuring  men,  properly  speaking, 
although  they  work  it  that  way  in  Germany;  but  insuring  the 
contractor  from  damage  suits  and  verdicts  from  injured 
workers. 

I  once  saw  a  man  go  headlong  down  through  several  stories. 
He  lay  in  bed  for  a  week  or  so,  and  then,  after  hearing  that 
there  was  insurance,  came  around  to  the  subcontractor  for  his 
share.  His  impression  was  that  he  was  to  be  paid  for  falling, 
but  the  Chicago  subcontractor  smiled  and  said  that  it  did 
not  work  that  way.  He  took  the  matter  to  court,  but  the 
judge  laid  the  accident  to  his  own  carelessness. 


140     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Record.  —  The  time  and  date  of  an  accident  should  be  set 
down,  and  all  particulars:  the  insurance  company  has  to  be 
at  once  notified. 

Amount.  —  The  insurance  is  taken  out  on  the  basis  of  the 
wages  paid  in  a  year.  It  applies  to  all  buildings  under 
construction,  and  not  merely  to  one. 

Other  Risks.  —  It  is  not  only  with  the  building  proper  that 
the  risk  comes,  but  in  sewer  excavation,  and  such  work. 
Unloading  of  material  also  has  its  dangers.  The  insurance 
covers  everything. 

Assuming  Risk.  —  Some  try  the  system  of  "  contracting 
out,"  or  making  individual  agreements  with  the  men  to  assume 
the  risk  themselves.  While  lawyers  disagree,  it  is  not  likely 
that  a  court  would  uphold  any  such  arrangement.  There 
are  certain  things  that  a  man  cannot  sign  away  in  civilized 
lands.  He  cannot  sign  awTay  his  life,  for  example,  on  a  given 
day.  Who  would  take  it?  Neither  does  it  seem  that  he 
may  sign  away  the  right  of  his  relatives  to  collect  damages 
for  his  death  or  accident  to  his  person  through  the  carelessness 
of  the  builder  or  those  working  for  him.  Such  rights  are  not 
his  to  sign  away.  The  larger  view  is  that  it  would  be  preju- 
dicial to  the  interests  of  the  community  to  allow  him  to  do 
so  even  if  willing. 

This  matter  happened  to  be  discussed  a  good  deal  in  the 
British  parliament  a  few  years  ago.  Some  laws  were  laid 
down  that  the  railroads  did  not  like,  and  they  wanted  to  be 
allowed  to  sign  private  agreements  with  their  employees;  but 
they  did  not  succeed.  All  that  it  would  have  meant  is  that 
the  employees  would  have  had  to  sign  or  leave  the  employ- 
ment, for  some  other  reason  than  the  true  one,  and  this  would 
have  nullified  the  whole  intent  of  the  law,  and  set  the 
companies  up  above  the  national  legislators. 

Mr.  McCullough,  in  his  "  Business  of  Contracting,"  cites 
instances  where  married  men  signed  such  agreements,  and 
their  wives  signed  with  them,  a  paid  up  accident  policy  having 
been  provided  as  a  consideration;  but  it  is  again  doubtful 
if  such  a  contract  would  hold.  Just  as  ex  post  facto  laws 
are  not  allowed,  so,  in  general,  agreements  signing  away 
natural  rights  are  worthless. 

With  relation  to  this,  I  notice  in  the  World-Herald  of 
Omaha,  November  25,  1909,  that  the  supreme  court  "  affirmed 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     141 

a  district  court  decision  to  the  effect  that  a  railroad  company 
cannot  relieve  itself  of  liability  for  its  own  negligence  by 
making  a  contract  of  immunity  in  advance."  Law  and  justice 
would  seem  to  be  on  good  terms  in  this  decision. 

Cost.  —  Mr.  McCullough  gives  the  cost  at  from  2  to  12  per 
cent,  of  an  engineering  pay  roll,  depending  upon  the  danger 
of  the  work.  In  building  work  the  rate  usually  runs  from 
3l/2  per  cent,  on  a  small  amount  of  a  few  thousands  to  2% 
per  cent,  where  there  is  a  large  pay  roll.  On  a  pay  roll  of 
$5,000  at  3y2  the  cost  would  be  $175.  This  would  hold  good 
till  the  sum  of  $5,000  had  been  paid  out  in  wages.  It  is 
not  worth  while  taking  any  risk  with  contracting  out  when 
lawyers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  legality  of  the  contracts.  It 
is  better  to  pay  the  companies  the  rate  demanded  and  be 
secure. 

Neglect.  —  The  insurance  companies  properly  insist  upon  a 
contractor  being  careful.  If  an  accident  is  due  to  his  own 
carelessness  or  neglect  of  ordinary  precautions,  the  company 
can  recover  damages. 

Serious  Verdicts.  —  I  wrote  an  insurance  company  for  a 
few  figures,  and  got  the  following  ones,  which  are  just  from 
one  state.  There  are  about  fifty  other  states  and  territories 
to  consider. 

In  some  states  there  was  formerly  a  statutory  law  limiting 
the  liability  for  death  to  $5,000.  Now,  where  this  limit  is 
removed,  the  danger  is  greater  than  ever. 

In  the  state  of  New  York,  after  1895,  a  provision  of  the 
constitution  took  from  the  legislature  the  power  of  limiting 
the  amount  recoverable.  There  are  now  hundreds  of  cases 
waiting,  or  still  being  fought  over,  in  the  lower  courts  there, 
but  many  have  been  decided  under  the  new  law.  From  the 
records  of  the  Court  of  Appeals,  Appellate  Division,  New  York, 
thirty-two  cases  are  cited  by  one  insurance  company,  with 
verdicts  running  from  $40,000  to  $9,500;  thirteen  are  for 
$10,000;  four  from  $12,000  to  $12,500;  six  at  $15,000;  five 
from  $21,000  to  $25,000;  and  two  for  $40,000. 

After  Business.  —  The  insurance  companies  naturally  give 
the  verdicts  that  are  most  likely  to  send  the  contractors 
on  the  run  for  policies,  but  allowing  for  all  this,  the  matter 
ought  not  to  be  neglected. 

The  companies  insure  only  for  a  limited  amount  per  person 


142     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

injured,  and  for  a  limited  total  amount.  If  insurance  is  wanted 
against  such  extreme  verdicts  as  for  $40,000,  then  excess 
liability  must  be  taken  out.  Contracting  is  a  more  dangerous 
business  than  some  imagine.  All  the  property  a  contractor 
has  accumulated  in  the  course  of  a  lifetime  might  vanish  in 
half  an  hour.  This  is  why  some  of  them  grow  fonder  of  their 
wives  every  year.  She  holds  the  "  swag." 

Big  Business.  —  The  great  size  of  the  liability  insurance 
business  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1908  the  sum  of 
$22,711,547  was  paid  for  premiums;  and  $11,670,222  for 


Construction  Bonds.  —  An  indemnity  bond  has  usually  to 
be  given  to  the  owner  to  secure  him  against  liens,  etc.,  and 
to  make  the  fulfillment  of  the  contract  a  certainty.  Some 
owners  go  so  far  as  to  ask  for  a  bond  to  the  full  amount 
of  the  contract,  but  this  is  most  unreasonable.  A  bond  for 
one-third,  or  even  one-fourth  is  enough  for  a  responsible 
builder.  A  government  bond  is  usually  for  half  of  the  con- 
tract price. 

But  even  a  responsible  builder  should  remember  that  the 
erection  of  a  building  is  purely  a  business  proposition,  and 
not  get  on  his  dignity  when  the  owner  or  his  agent,  the 
architect,  wishes  to  see  if  the  money  previously  paid  has 
been  turned  over  to  the  dealers  and  subcontractors  in  the 
right  proportion  before  issuing  another  order.  When  this  is 
done,  a  large  bond  is  not  necessary. 

When  the  subpayments  are  made  as  they  should  be,  every 
day  the  owner  becomes  safer,  until  at  the  end  he  has  a 
large  bond  for  a  reserve  of  often  only  ten  per  cent,  of  the  cost. 
If  a  full  bond  is  exacted  he  might  have  $100,000  of  security  on 
this,  and,  at  the  finish,  10  per  cent,  on  the  building  itself, 
worth  $10,000  more,  we  shall  assume.  Even  this  would  be 
in  his  hands  until  the  last  payment.  On  this  assumed  building 
worth  $100,000  he  would  thus,  at  the  end,  have  security  for 
$110,000  to  see  him  through.  There  is  no  sense  in  a  bond 
that  is  more  than  half  the  contract  at  most. 

And  if  a  bond  is  really  worth  anything  at  all  why 
should  there  be  any  reserve?  Does  the  bond  not  secure  pay- 
ments ? 

Who  Pays.  —  The  owner  really  has  to  pay  for  his  own 
security,  for  the  cost  of  the  bond  is  added  to  the  estimate, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     143 

but  the  trouble  comes  with  the  bonding  companies.  They 
are  more  particular  with  a  large  than  with  a  small  bond. 
The  builder  has  to  tell  how  much  property  he  has,  if  it  is  in 
his  own  name  or  his  wife's,  how  much  cash  he  has,  and 
several  other  particulars.  The  contractor  who  might  be  able 
to  take  a  good  sized  contract  is  debarred  by  the  size  of  the 
bond,  and  the  owner  thus  restricts  the  field  to  builders  who 
charge  a  higher  price  for  the  work.  He  pays  a  higher  price 
for  the  privilege  of  being  extra  safe. 

Carefulness.  —  A  bond  of  this  kind  should  be  made  out  to 
cover  a  certain  job  till  it  is  finished,  as  some  of  the  com- 
panies now  want  to  collect  an  annual  premium.  From  one 
per  cent,  to  half  that  amount  of  the  sum  for  which  the  bond 
is  made  out  is  charged. 

Personal  Bonds.  —  No  one  should  now  ask  his  friends  to 
go  on  his  bond  for  him.  This  used  to  be  the  fashion,  and 
it  was  a  bad  one.  There  are  companies  organized  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  unfair  to  expect  your  friends  to  risk  their 
fortunes  on  your  business  arrangements  while  they  get  noth- 
ing in  return.  You  could  not  pay  them  enough  to  cover  the 
risk,  but  the  operations  of  the  companies  are  spread  over 
a  large  territory,  and  a  loss  in  one  part  is  made  up  by 
gains  in  many  other  sections.  A  personal  bondsman  can 
sometimes  fight  himself  out  of  liability  in  case  of  disaster, 
but  there  are  too  many  cases  where  this  has  not  been  possible 
to  make  the  risk  desirable  to  anyone.  It  is  like  endorsing 
notes. 

Back  Bond.  —  One  method  the  companies  have  is  to  ask  for 
a  back  bond.  They  will  furnish  the  main  bond,  which  is 
larger  than  any  private  person  would  guarantee,  but  expect 
the  contractor  to  sign  agreements  that  they  will  hold  the 
company  clear  of  all  damage.  This  enables  the  contractor  to 
go  ahead,  but  it  is  under  the  old  personal  bond  arrangement. 
He  has  to  pay  the  guaranty  company,  but  if  they  are  not 
satisfied  with  the  risk  under  a  straight  bond,  they  should 
let  it  alone.  Probably  the  contractor  is  taking  a  larger  job 
than  he  should. 

One  disadvantage  of  having  property  in  your  wife's  name  is 
when  asking  for  a  bond,  unless  there  is  enough  of  your  own  as 
well.  If  a  builder  will  not  risk  his  own  property,  why  should 
a  bonding  company  risk  theirs? 


144    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Mortgage.  —  The  first  bond  I  gave  was  a  mortgage  upon 
a  cottage.  It  was  thoughtlessly  done,  for  if  anything  had 
gone  wrong  with  the  contract  there  might  have  been  trouble 
with  the  title  for  years. 

The  largest  one  was  for  $40,000,  or  a  little  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  contract. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
HAND  AND  MACHINE  LABOR 

Early  Days.  —  When  machines  were  first  introduced  into 
the  spinning  mills  and  factories  the  workers  rose  and  smashed 
them  to  pieces,  and  then  hunted  for  the  inventors.  They 
fought  the  machine  with  brickbats  and  curses,  but  it  was 
useless. 

It  is  just  about  as  useless  for  the  building  contractor  of 
to-day  to  try  to  "  buck "  the  machine  in  his  line.  It  turns 
out  the  finished  product  almost  as  cheap  as  we  can  buy 
the  raw  material  for.  Robinson  Crusoe  had  to  make  every- 
thing by  hand;  but  why  try  to  play  R.  C.  in  the  midst  of 
civilization?  It  costs  too  much.  Wages  are  too  high  for 
that. 

High  Wages.  —  In  cities  as  wages  get  higher  machinery 
must  be  brought  more  and  more  into  use.  Brick,  mortar, 
lumber,  steel — all  heavy  building  material  will  have  to  be 
taken  up  by  steam  or  electric  power  in  the  future.  Next 
to  hanging  a  man,  about  the  worst  use  you  can  make  of  him 
is  to  give  him  a  hod  full  of  brick  or  mortar  and  tell  him 
to  mount  three  stories  with  it.  A  contractor  cannot  always 
have  machinery  of  his  own,  but  in  large  cities  he  can  often 
rent  it. 

Gradually  as  we  get  into  better  days,  the  rough  work  is 
being  turned  over  to  the  electric  motor.  Even  the  surfacing 
of  floors  is  now  done  in  this  way,  and  this  one  misery  done 
away  with. 

Craftsmen.  —  Some  of  our  "  craftsmen  "  friends  are  taking 
Mr.  Ruskin's  advice  and  trying  to  get  back  to  the  old 
paths.  They  can  neither  mortise  nor  tenon  so  well  as  the 
machines  can,  and  there  is  no  more  virtue  in  a  hole  dug  in 
wood  by  hand  than  in  one  dug  by  machine. 

Saw-Pits.  —  There  are  a  few  scattered  around.  Those  who 
have  seen  them  and  the  bent  shouldered  men  who  used  to  do 

145 


146    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  terrible  work  of  sawing  planks  know  that  it  was  a  good 
day  when  civilization  was  able  to  lay  aside  that  R.  C.  way 
of  doing  work.  John  Stuart  Mill  sat  in  a  library  and  penned 
an  often  quoted  remark  to  the  effect  that  it  is  doubtful  if 
all  of  our  inventions  have  lightened  the  toil  of  anyone.  If 
his  back  had  been  bent  over  a  saw-pit  he  would  never  have 
written  such  nonsense.  Or  if  he  had  ever  carried  up  brick 
in  a  hod  for  a  month  or  two. 

Planing-Mills.  —  As  a  rule,  it  does  not  pay  a  contractor 
to  run  a  planing-mill.  The  expense  of  machinery  for  a  good 
mill  is  heavy,  and  unless  it  can  be  kept  continuously  going, 
it  is  rather  a  poor  investment  in  these  days  when  the  large 
mills  turn  out  stock  work  at  an  astonishingly  low  price. 
If  a  contractor  has  enough  special  work  to  keep  the  mill 
going,  and  plenty  of  capital,  there  is  a  chance  of  making 
money. 

Gasoline.  —  In  some  towns  and  villages  where  there  is  no 
planing-mill,  a  profitable  investment  is  a  kerosene,  alcohol, 
or  power  engine  of  some  kind,  provided  that  there  is  no 
electric  current  that  can  be  used  at  a  cheap  rate.  All  over 
the  country  farmers  are  investing  in  such  engines,  and  are 
finding  that  it  pays  to  use  them  for  work  formerly  done 
by  hand.  Country  carpenters  would  find  them  of  great 
advantage. 

Mixing  Machines.  —  It  is  commonly  agreed  among  archi- 
tects and  engineers  that  it  is  better  to  mix  concrete  by 
machine  than  by  hand,  although  the  hand  method  is  cheaper 
on  very  small  quantities.  On  large  quantities  the  machine 
mixing  is  far  cheaper. 

Hoisting.  —  It  is  also  far  cheaper  to  hoist  lumber  and 
heavy  materials  by  machine  than  by  hand  when  above  the 
second  floor.  The  difficulty  is  to  get  a  hoisting  engine.  A 
good  many  contractors  now  use  an  electric  motor,  and  get 
their  power  from  the  local  company  or  the  city. 

With  portable  saws,  mixing  machines,  boring  machines, 
floor-smoothing  machines,  and  hoisting  power,  we  live 
in  an  age  of  machinery.  We  may  still  use  the  sickle 
to  cut  the  lawn,  as  it  were,  but  the  mowing  machine  beats 
it. 

Waste.  —  One  of  the  points  of  attack  in  all  businesses  now 
is  the  elimination  of  waste.  Doing  by  hand  what  is  cheaper 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     147 


and  better  done  by  machine  is  wasteful.  The  man  with  the 
machine  is  going  to  win  in  the  long  run. 

Technical  books,  tables  of  weights,  areas,  dimensions,  add- 
ing machines,  and  Uniform  Contracts — all  these  are  labor- 
saving  inventions  to  be  taken  advantage  of  by  those  who  will. 
Why  should  you  figure  out  the  area  of  a  circle  for  yourself 
when  it  was  done  for  you  before  you  were  born? 

Proportion.  —  The  following  figures,  principally  relating  to 
building  work,  show  just  about  what  the  situation  is.  They 
are  reliable  and  cost  a  good  deal  of  money  to  collect,  but  I 
did  not  pay  it.  Here  the  time  only  is  given  to  show  the 
proportion  of  the  two  methods.  In  the  1910  edition  of  "The 
New  Building  Estimator,"  the  quantities  are  given  with  the 
time  to  show  cost  of  production  for  estimating  purposes.  The 
idea  is  to  set  forth  the  uselessness  of  "  bucking  "  the  machine 
in  this  chapter. 

DESCRIPTION 


Making  common  brick .  . 
"        paving         "    . . 

"        sewer  pipe    .... 

«  a         (( 

"         sand  and  cement 

pipe    

"        granite  balusters 
(pat'rns  only) 
"        granite  balusters 
turning     by 

lathe     

"         granite  balusters 
turning  total 

time 

Carving    and    tracing 

granite    

Cutting     marble     column 
16'  x  2'   diameter    .... 

Dressing  granite    

(i  n 

Lettering  granite  


HAND 

MACHINE      PROPORTION 

Hrs. 

Mins. 

Hrs. 

Mins. 

20 

36 

7 

30 

3 

to  1 

33 

52 

8 

43 

4 

to  1 

16 

12 

9 

30 

2 

to  1 

26 

10 

9 

30 

3 

to  1 

8  44 


41  23 


2  12 
9 


7,488  00    536  00 


8,303  23 

228  00 

338  35 

225  00 

61  00 

31  30 

11  15 


653  26 

126  20 

321  15 

15  00 

10  00 

22  30 

9  00 


4  to  1 

,4  to  1 

14  to  1 

13  to  1 

2  to  1 


15   to  1 
6   to  1 


148     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


DESCRIPTION 


HAND  MACHINE     PROPORTION 

Hrs.  Mins.     Hrs.  Mins. 


Polishing  granite   

90 

00 

9 

00 

10 

to 

1 

"             "          

60 

00 

9 

00 

6 

to 

1 

marble  

2 

30 

2 

30 

t(             a 

20 

00 

6 

00 

3 

to 

1 

Sawing          "          

6,000 

00 

6 

30 

923 

to 

1 

Cutting    sandstone    win- 

dowsills    .  . 

79 

10 

23 

24 

3 

to 

1 

Stone  breaking 

650 

00 

10 

00 

65 

to 

1 

"     drilling    

30 

00 

1 

22 

22 

to 

1 

"          " 

89 

10 

14 

50 

6 

to 

1 

Granite  drilling  

504 

00 

131 

00 

4 

to 

1 

Loading  gravel    

11 

to 

1 

WOODWORK 

Making  oak  bookcases  .  . 

654 

00 

157 

14 

4 

to 

1 

"           "            " 

480 

00 

43 

12 

10 

to 

1 

Cutting  same  for  locks. 

6 

00 

0 

11 

33 

to 

1 

Making  bureaus  

443 

00 

108 

00 

4 

to 

1 

Sideboards     

970 

00 

182 

30 

5 

to 

1 

Making   outside   window 

blinds     

462 

30 

114 

40 

4 

to 

1 

Making    outside    window 

blinds  

695 

50 

56 

40 

12 

to 

1 

Making  oak  brackets  .  .  . 

196 

00 

63 

30 

3 

to 

1 

Making  pine  brackets   .  . 

27 

50 

3 

25 

9 

to 

1 

Making  veneered  doors  . 

1,385 

00 

510 

00 

2i/2 

to 

1 

Making    four-panel    oak 

doors  

702 

30 

131 

00 

6 

to 

1 

Making    four-panel    pine 

doors 

484 

00 

193 

00 

2Vo 

to 

1 

Planing  lumber 

*  /2 

30 

to 

1 

80 

to 

Making  sash   

300 

00 

21 

15 

15 

to 

«           K 

400 

00 

37 

20 

11 

to 

«          « 

312 

30 

30 

30 

10 

to 

"        window  screens. 

70 

50 

16 

00 

4 

to 

ladders,  30-ft  .  . 

103 

15 

46 

25 

2 

to 

1 

"        stepladders  .... 

58 

30 

14 

10 

4 

to 

1 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     149 

DESCRIPTION                              HAND  MACHINE     PROPORTION 

Hrs.  Mins.  Hrs.  Mins. 

Sawing  logs 64     00  2     00          32      to  1 

«      96     30  2     45           38       to  1 

"      100,000    ft. 

B.    M. .  .    15,000    00  40     00        375       to  1 

Splitting  kindling  wood.          40    00  3     52           11       to  1 

PIPEWORK 

Cutting     and     threading 

3"  pipe  100    00  6    40          15      to  1 

Tapping    and    threading 

pipe 26    40  1     05          25      to  1 


BOOK  II 
THE  CONTRACTOR  AS  A  CONSTRUCTOR 

CHAPTER  I 
WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  THEIR  USE 

For  Whom  Intended.  —  The  tables  in  this  chapter  are 
arranged  for  contractors,  and  are  not  so  near  perfection  as 
some  we  know  of.  Decimals  are  left  out  where  they  are  not 
really  required;  "reciprocals"  are  never  used  in  contracting, 
and  are  therefore  not  printed  here;  and  other  changes  are  made 
from  the  orthodox  lists. 

Specialists.  —  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  contractor  is 
not  a  trained  architect,  and  still  less  an  engineer.  But, 
conversely,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind,  at  the  same  time,  that 
the  architect  is  not  a  building  contractor,  and  the  engineer 
still  less  so. 

The  contractor  is  sometimes  trained  to  do  architectural 
and  engineering  work  of  a  plain  nature,  and  architects  and 
engineers  occasionally  engage  in  the  business  of  contracting, 
but  in  general  the  spheres  are  practically  distinct,  and  what 
is  required  for  the  one  is  useless  for  the  other.  What  has  a 
builder  to  do  with  logarithms  or  trigonometry  or  the  refine- 
ments of  the  various  styles  of  architecture?  The  ground 
comes  to  him  "  surveyed,  platted,  and  recorded,"  and  the 
plans  and  specifications  are  delivered  with  orders  to  go  ahead. 
He  has  troubles  enough  of  his  own  without  taking  those  of 
other  men  on  his  shoulders. 

It  is  all  well  enough,  and  desirable  enough,  if  he  under- 
stands the  principles  upon  which  the  designs  he  works  from 
are  based,  but  not  really  necessary.  The  architect  will  look 
after  that  end  of  the  common  task.  The  contractor's  part  is 

151 


152     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

merely    to    realize    the    brilliant    dream    in    stone    or    other 
"  rough  materialistic "  things  of  that  kind. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 
LONG    MEASUBE 

Inches 

12=      1  foot 

36=       3  —       1  yard 

72=       6  =       2    —     I  fathom 
198=     16.5=       5.5=     2.75=1  perch  or  rod 

7920=  660  =  220    —110     =  40=1   furlong 

63360=5280  =1760    =880     =320=8=1  mile 

SQUAEE  MEASURE 

Inches 

144=:  1  foot 

1296=  9=1  yard 

39204=  272.25=     30.25=     1  perch 

1568160=  10890     =1210     =  40=1  rood 

6272640=  43560     =4840     =160=4=1  acre 

An  acre  is  69.5701  yards  square;  or,  208.710321  feet  square 
A  township  is  6  miles  square  =    36  sections 
"  section       "  1      "          "       =  640  acres 
%     "  "  1/3     "          "       =160      " 

1-16    "  "  %     "          "        =    40      " 

SOLID   MEASURE 

Cubic  inches 

1728  =     1  cubic  foot 
46656  =  27  =  1  cubic  yard 

DRY  MEASURE 

Pints  =  33.6  cubic  inches 
2=1  quart  =  67.2  cubic  inches 
8  =    4  =  1  gallon  =  268.8  cubic  inches 
16  =     8  =  2=1   peck  =  537.6  cubic  inches 
64  =  32  =  8  =  4=1  bushel 

Note.  —  The  standard  U.  S.  bushel  is  the  Winchester  bushel, 
which  is  in  cylinder  form  18%  in.  diameter  and  8  in.  deep, 
and  contains  2150  42-100  cubic  inches. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    153 


(  2218.192  cubic  inches 

The  English  Imperial  bushel  =  j  L(m52  y   g   bushelg 

(  8  Imperial  bushels 

The  English  quarter  =  •<  8%  (nearly)  U.  S.  bu. 

f  10.2694  cubic  feet 


MEASURE  OF  SURFACE 


MEASURE  OF  SOLIDITY 


144  sq.  inches  —  1  sq.  foot         1728  cubic  in.  =  1  cubic  foot 

9  sq.  feet  —  1  sq.  yard          27  cubic  ft.  —  1  cubic  yard 

30*4  sq.  yards  =  1  sq.  rod 

40  sq.  rods  =  1  rood  LIQUID  MEASURE 

4  roods  =  1  acre 

10  sq.  chains  —  1  acre 

640  acres  • — •  1  sq.  mile 


gills 
pints 
quarts 


31  y2  gallons 


make  1  pint 

"  1  quart 

"  1  gallon 

"  1  barrel 


WEIGHTS 

One  Cubic  inch  of  Cast  Iron,          weighs 

One  Cubic  inch  of  Wrought  Iron,     " 

One  Cubic  inch  of  Water, 

One  U.  S.  Gallon,  " 

One  Imperial  Gallon,  " 

One  U.  S.  Gallon,  equals 

One  Imperial  Gallon,  " 

One  Cubic  foot  of  Water, 

One  Pound  of  Steam,  " 

One  Pound  of  Air,  " 


0.26   pounds 

0.28 

0.036       " 

8.33 
10.00 

231.00  cubic  inches 
277.274     " 

7.48  U.  S.  gallons 
27.222  cubic  feet 

13.817     " 


RULES  FOR  OBTAINING  APPROXIMATE  WEIGHT  OF  IRON 

For  Round  Bars 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  in  inches  by 
the  length  in  feet,  and  that  product  by  2.6.  The  product  will 
be  the  weight  in  pounds,  nearly. 

For  Square  and  Flat  Bars 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  area  of  the  end  of  the  bar  in  inches 
by  the  length  in  feet,  and  that  by  3.32.  The  product  will  be 
the  weight  in  pounds,  nearly. 


154     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Wrought   iron,   usually  assumed: 

A  cubic  foot =480  Ibs. 

A  square  foot,  1  inch  thick =     40     " 

A  bar  1  inch  square,  1  foot  long =     3^     " 

A    "       "  "        1  yard  long    =     10     " 

To  find  the  weight  of  Cast  Iron  Balls  when  the  diameter  is 
given. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  cube  of  the  diameter  by  .1377. 
To  find  the  diameter  of  Cast  Iron  Balls  when  the  weight  is 
given. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  cube  root  of  the  weight  by  1.936. 
To  find  the  weight  of  a  Spherical  Shell. 
From  the  weight  of  a  ball  of  the  outer  diameter  subtract 
the  weight  of  one  of  the  inner  diameters. 
To  convert  the  weight  of 

Wrought    Iron    into    Cast    Iron  X  0-928 
Steel  X   1-014 

Zinc  X  0-918 

Brass  X   1-082 

Copper         X   1-144 
Lead  X   1-468 

DECIMAL  APPROXIMATIONS    USEFUL  IN   CALCULATIONS 

Cubic  inches  X  -263  =  lbs-  av-  cast  *ron 
"          "         X  -281  =        "        wrought  iron 

X  -283  =  "  cast  steel 

X  -3225=  "  copper 

X  -3037=  "  brass 

"           "         X  -26     =  "  zinc 

X  -4103=  "  lead 

X  -2636=  "  tin 

"          "         x  -4908=:  "  mercury 

Cylin.      "         X  -2065=  "  cast  iron 

"          "         x  .2168=  "  wrought  iron 

X  -2223=  "  cast  steel 

"          "         X  -2533=  "  copper 

X  .2385=  "  brass 

"           "         X  -2042=  "  zinc 

X  .3223=  "  lead 

X  -207  =  "  tin 

X  .3854=  "  mercury 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    155 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES 

Cast   Iron,  average    7.21       Cast    Steel,          average    7.85 

Wrought    Iron  "        7.78       Bessemer   Steel          "        7.86 

Light  iron  indicates  impurity.     The  heaviest  steel  contains 
least   carbon. 

Decimal  equivalents  of  8ths,  16ths,  32s,  and  64ths  of  an  inch. 


Fractions 
of  an 
inch. 

Decimals 
of  an 
inch. 

Fractions 
of  an 
inch. 

Decimals 
of  an 
inch. 

1-64  — 

.015625 

33-64  = 

.515625 

1-32  = 

.03125 

17-32  = 

.53125 

3-64  = 

.046875 

35-64  =i 

.546875 

1-16  — 

.0625 

9-16  — 

.5625 

5-64  — 

.078125 

37-64  = 

.578125 

3-32  = 

.09375 

19-32  = 

.59375 

7-64  = 

.109375 

39-64  — 

.609375 

VB   = 

.125 

%    = 

.625 

9-64  — 

.140625 

41-64  = 

.640625 

5-32  = 

.15625 

21-32  = 

.65625 

11-64  = 

.171875 

43-64  = 

.671875 

3-16  — 

.1875 

11-16  = 

.6875 

13-64  — 

.203125 

45-64  = 

.703125 

7-32  = 

.21875 

23-32  = 

.71875 

15-64  = 

.234375 

47-64  — 

.734375 

*A   = 

.25 

3/4     = 

.75 

17-64  = 

.265625 

49-64  — 

.765625 

9-32  = 

.28125 

25-32  = 

.78125 

19-64  — 

.296875 

51-64  = 

.796875 

5-16  — 

.3125 

13-16  = 

.8125 

21-64  = 

.328125 

53-64  — 

.828125 

11-32  — 

.34375 

27-32  — 

.84375 

23-64  — 

.359375 

55-64  = 

.859375 

%   = 

.375 

%    = 

.875 

25-64  = 

.390625 

57-64  = 

.890625 

13-32  — 

.40625 

29-32  = 

.90625 

27-64  — 

.421895 

59-64  = 

.921875 

7-16  = 

.4375 

15-16  = 

.9375 

29-64  = 

.453125 

61-64  — 

.953125 

15-32  — 

.46875 

31-32  — 

.96875 

31-64  = 

.484375 

63-64  = 

.984375 

y    — 

.5 

156     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

DECIMALS    OF   A    FOOT    FOR    EACH  OF    AN    INCH 


Inches 

0" 

1" 

2" 

3" 

4 

5" 

6" 

1" 

8" 

9" 

10" 

11" 

0 
& 

0 
.0026 

.0833 
.0859 

.1667 
.1693 

.2500 
.2526 

.3333 
.3359 

.4167 
.4193 

.5000 
.5026 

.5833 
.5859 

.6667 
.6693 

.7500 
.7526 

.8333 
.8359 

.9167 
.9193 

ij 

.0052 

.0885 

.1719 

.2552 

.3385 

.4219 

.5052 

.5885 

.6719 

.7552 

.8385 

.9219 

33Z 

.0078 

.0911 

.1745 

.2578 

.3411 

.4245 

.5078 

.5911 

.6745 

.7578 

.8411 

.9245 

Vs 

.0104 

.0937 

.1771 

.2604 

.3437 

.4271 

.5104 

.5937 

.6771 

.7604 

.8437 

.9271 

^j 

.0130 

.0964 

.1797 

.2630 

.3464 

.4297 

.5130 

.5964 

.6797 

.7630 

.8464 

.9297 

A 

.0156 

.0990 

.1823 

.2656 

.3490 

.4323 

.5156 

.5990 

.6823 

.7656 

.8490 

.9323 

j^jj 

.0182 

.1016 

.1849 

.2682 

.3516 

.4349 

.5182 

.6016 

.6849 

.7682 

.8516 

.9349 

% 

.0208 

.1042 

.1875 

.2708 

.3542 

.4375 

.5208 

.6042 

.6875 

.7708 

.8542 

.9375 

& 

.0234 

.1068 

.1901 

.2734 

.3568 

.4401 

.5234 

.6068 

.6901 

.7734 

.8568 

.9401 

JL 

.0260 

.1094 

.1927 

.2760 

.3594 

.4427 

.5260 

.6094 

.6927 

.7760 

.8594 

.9427 

41 

.0286 

.1120 

.1953 

.2786 

.3620 

.4453 

.5286 

.6120 

.6953 

.7786 

.8620 

.9453 

% 

.0312 

.1146 

.1979 

.2812 

.3646 

.4479 

.5312 

.6146 

.6979 

.7812 

.8646 

.9479 

J$ 

.0339 

.1172 

.2005 

.2839 

.3672 

.4505 

.5339 

.6172 

.7005 

.7839 

.8672 

.9505 

iV 

.0365 

.1198 

.2031 

.2865 

.3698 

.4531 

.5365 

.6198 

.7031 

.7865 

.8698 

.9531 

if 

.0391 

.1224 

.2057 

.2891 

.3724 

.4557 

.5391 

.6224 

.7057 

.7891 

.8724 

.9557 

% 

.0417 

.1250 

.2083 

.2917 

.3750 

.4583 

.5417 

.6250 

.7083 

.7917 

.8750 

.9583 

.0443 

.1276 

.2109 

.2943 

.3776 

.4609 

.5443 

.6276 

.7109 

.7943 

.8776 

.9609 

_pg 

.0469 

.1302 

.2135 

.2969 

.3802 

.4635 

.5469 

.6302 

.7135 

.7969 

.8802 

.9635 

ig 

.0495 

.1328 

.2161 

.2995 

.3828 

.4661 

.5495 

.6328 

.7161 

.7995 

.8828 

.9661 

% 

.0521 

.1354 

.2188 

.3021 

.3854 

.4688 

.5521 

.6354 

.7188 

.8021 

.8854 

.9688 

ll 

.0547 

.1380 

.2214 

.3047 

.3880 

.4714 

.5547 

.6380 

.7214 

.8047 

.8880 

.9714 

.0573 
.0599 

.1406 
.1432 

.2240 
.2266 

.3073 
.3099 

.3906 
.3932 

.4740 
.4766 

.5573 
.5599 

.6406 
.6432 

.7240 
.7266 

.8073 
.8099 

.8906 
.8932 

.9740 
.9766 

% 

.0625 

.1458 

.2292 

.3125 

.3958 

.4792 

.5625 

.6458 

.7292 

.8125 

.8958 

.9792 

.0651 

.1484 

.2318 

.3151 

.3984 

.4818 

.5651 

.6484 

.7318 

.8151 

.8984 

.9818 

18 

.0677 

.1510 

.2344 

.3177 

.4010 

.4844 

.5677 

.6510 

.7344 

.8177 

.9010 

.9844 

| 

.0703 

.1536 

.2370 

.3203 

.4036 

.4870 

.5703 

.6536 

.7370 

.8203 

.9036 

.9870 

% 

.0729 

.1562 

.2396 

.3229 

.4062 

.4896 

.5729 

.6562 

.7396 

.8229 

.9062 

.9896 

.0755 

.1589 

.2422 

.3255 

.4089 

.4922 

.5755 

.6589 

.7422 

.8255 

.9089 

.9922 

1| 

.0781 

.1615 

.2448 

.3281 

.4115 

.4948 

.5781 

.6615 

.7448 

.8281 

.9115 

.9948 

35 

.0807 

.1641 

.2474 

.3307 

.4141 

.4974 

.5807 

.6641 

.7474 

.8307 

.9141 

.9974 

1 

1.0000 

Example.  —  To   use   decimals   of  a   foot  table.     Suppose  we 

want  to  multiply  3  feet  2y2  inches  by  8  feet  6%  inches.  In 

the  table  we  find  that  2y>  equals  .0283,  and  634,  .5625.  We 
therefore  multiply  3.0283  by  8.5625  for  the  exact  figure. 

DECIMAL   EQUIVALENTS    OF   OUNCES    AND    POUNDS 


Oz. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Lbs. 

14 

— 

.015625 

4 

=  .25 

8y2 

= 

.5313 

l/2 

= 

.03125 

4% 

=  .2813 

9 

— 

.5625 

% 

•=. 

.046875 

5 

=  .3125 

10 

= 

.625 

I 

= 

.0625 

6% 

—  .3438 

11 

— 

.6875 

1% 

— 

.09375 

6 

=  .375 

12 

=r 

.75 

2 

— 

.125 

6y2 

—  .4063 

13 

= 

.8125 

2y2 

= 

.15625 

7 

=r  .4375 

14 

i= 

.875 

3 

= 

.1875 

7% 

=  .4688 

15 

— 

.9375 

Sy 

= 

.21875 

8 

=  .5 

16 

=  1 

p. 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     157 

DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  OF  INCHES,  FEET,  AND  YARDS 


Frac. 
of  an 
Inch. 

Dec. 
of  an 
Inch. 

Dec. 
of  a 
Foot. 

Ins 

Feet. 

Yds. 

1-16  = 

.0625  = 

.00521 

1 

=  .0833  = 

.0277 

%   = 

.125  = 

.01041 

2 

=  .1666  = 

.0555 

3-16  — 

.1875  = 

.01562 

3 

=  .25   = 

.0833 

%   = 

.25   = 

.02083 

4 

=  .3333  = 

.1111 

5-16  = 

.3125  = 

.02604 

5 

=  .4166  = 

.1389 

%   = 

.375  = 

.03125 

6 

=  .5    = 

.1666 

7-16  = 

.4375  = 

.03645 

7 

=  .5833  = 

.1944 

%   = 

.5    = 

.04166 

8 

=  .666  = 

.2222 

9-16  = 

.5625  = 

.04688 

9 

=  .75   = 

.25 

%   = 

.625  = 

.05208 

10 

=  .8333  = 

.2778 

11-16  = 

.6875  — 

.05729 

11 

=  .9166  = 

.3055 

%   = 

.75   = 

.06250 

12 

=  1.    = 

.3333 

13-16  = 

.8125  = 

.06771 

%     = 

.875  = 

.07291 

Lineal  feet, 

"      yards, 
Square  inches, 

feet, 

"       yards, 
Acres, 

Cubic  inches, 
"      feet, 

Links, 

a 

Feet, 

Width  in  chains, 

Cubic  feet, 

"       inches, 
U.  S.  gallons, 

«  (S 

Cubic  feet, 

"       inches, 
U.  S.  bushel, 


USEFUL  NUMBERS 

X  .00019 

:=miles 

X  -0006 

(t 

X  -007 

=square  feet 

x  -in 

=     "        yards 

X  .0002067 

=acres 

X  -4840 

=square    yards 

X  .00058 

=cubic  feet 

X  .03704 

=     "      yards 

X  -22 

=yards 

X  .66 

=feet 

Xl-5 

=links 

X8. 

:=acres  per  mile 

X7.48 

=U.  S.  gallons 

X  .004329 

«          <( 

X  .13367 

=cubic  feet 

X231. 

=     "      inches 

X  -8036 

=U.  S.  bushel 

X  .000466 

((        (( 

X  .0495 

=cubic  yards 

Xl.2446 

=     "      feet 

X2150.42 

=    "     inches 

158    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


Pounds  avoirdupois, 

«  «( 

Cubic  feet  of  water, 
Cubic  inches  of  water, 

13.44  U.  S.  gallons  of  water, 
268.8        "          "         "      " 
1.8  cubic  feet  of  water, 

35.88     "       "     "       " 


X  .009 
X  .00045 
X62.5 
X  .03617 


=cwt.   (112) 
=tons  (2240) 
— Ibs.  avoir. 

(I  (C 

— 1  cwt. 

=1  cwt. 
=lton 


Column  of  water  12  in.  high,  1  inch  diameter,  —.341  pounds 


MENSURATION 


Area    of    a    trapezoid  =  -j 
Area  of  a  trapezium  — 


Area  of  a  triangle  =  base  X  Va  altitude. 
Area  of  a  parallelogram  =  base  X  altitude. 

altitude  X  Va  the  sum  of  parallel 
sides. 

divide  into  two  triangles  and  find 
area  of  the  triangles. 
Circumference  of  circle=  diameter  X  3.1416. 
Diameter  of  circle          =   circumference  X   -3183. 
Area  of  circle  =   diameter  2   X  -7854. 

Area  of  sector  of  circlem   length  of  arc  X  %  the  radius. 

area  of  sector  of  equal  radius, — 
area  of  triangle,  when  the  segment 
is  less,  and  -j-  area  of  triangle, 
when  the  segment  is  greater  than 
the  semi-circle. 

diameters  of  the  two  circles  X  dif- 
ference of  diameter  and  that  prod- 
(    uct  by  .7854. 
Side    of    square    that 
shall  equal  area  of  = 
circle 

Diam.    of   circle    that 
shall    contain    area  — 
of    a    given    square        ( 

Area    of     an     eclipse  =  product  of  the  two  diameters  X  -7854. 
Area  of  parabola  —  base  X  2A  altitude. 

sum  of  its  sides  X  perpendicular 
—  4    from    its    center    to    one    of    its 
sides  -f-  2. 


Area    of    segment    of 
circle 


Area  of  circular  ring  = 


diameter  X  -8862,  or  circumference 
X  -2821. 


side  of  square  X  1.1284. 


Area  of  regular  poly- 
gon 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    159 

Surface  of  cylinder  or  j    area  of  both  ends  -}-  length  X  &*' 

prism  ~  (    cumference. 

Contents    of    cylinder        ( 

—  •<    area  of  end  V  length, 
or  prism  ( 

Surface  of   sphere         =  diameter   X   circumference. 
Contents  of  sphere         =  diameter  8   X  -5236. 
Convex  surface  of  seg-        (    height  of  segment  X  circumference 
ment  of  sphere  ~  |    of  sphere  of  which  it  is  a  part. 

(    (height  2-|-  three  times  the  square 
Contents    of    segment        \      ,       ,.      '       .        .  ,,.,, 

—  J    of  radius  of  base)    X    (height  X 

(    .5236). 

Surface  of  pyramid  or        (    circumference  of  base  X  %  °f  the 
cone  ~  |    slant  height  -|-  area  of  the  base. 

Contents  of    pyramid          ( 

FJ  =  \    area  of  base  X  Vs  altitude, 

or  cone  ( 

(  sum  of  circumference  at  both  end 
Surface  of  frustum  of        \  .  .    .  .  .  .  »    .1 

=  J  V  M>  slant  height  -4-  area  of  both 

cone  or  pyramid  J  ^,/2 

(  ends. 

(multiply    areas    of    two    ends    to- 
gether   and    extract    square    root. 
Add   to    this    root   the   two   areas 
and  X  l/a  altitude. 
Contents  of  a  wedge  —  area  of  base  X  %  altitude. 


160     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


AREAS  OF  CIRCLES 


CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  CIRCLES 


Size 

Area 

Size 

Area 

Size 

Circum- 
ference 

Size 

Ci-rum- 
ference 

1/8 

00123 

1  9 

63.617 

Vi 

.3927 

9 

28.274 

v« 

00491 

Va 

70  882 

v« 

.7854 

Va 

29.845 

3/8 

0  1104 

10 

7854 

3/H 

1.1781 

10 

31.416 

Va 

0.1963 

Va 

86.59 

Va 

1.5708 

Va 

32.987 

6/8 

0.3067 

11 

9503 

V8 

1.9635 

11 

34.558 

3/4 

0.4417 

Va 

103.86 

3/4 

2.3562 

Va 

36.128 

t/8 

0.6013 

12 

113.09 

7/8 

2.7489 

12 

37  699 

/     C 

1 

0.7854 

Va 

122.71 

1 

3  1416 

Va 

39.270 

1/8 

0.9940 

13 

13273 

Vt 

35343 

13 

40.841 

/    " 

1/4 

1.227 

V3 

143  13 

V* 

3.9270 

Va 

42.412 

8/8 

1.484 

14 

15393 

'/• 

4.3197 

14 

43.982 

Vo 

1.767 

Va 

165.13 

Va 

4.7124 

Va 

45.553 

/  * 

5/8 

2.073 

15 

176.71 

Va 

5.1051 

15 

47.124 

/  " 

3/4 

2.405 

Va 

188.69 

3A 

5.4978 

Va 

48.695 

/    * 

Vs 

2.761 

16 

201.06 

'/• 

5.8905 

16 

50.265 

/  8 

2 

3.141 

Va 

213.82 

2 

6.2832 

Va 

51.836 

i/. 

3.976 

17 

226.98 

V« 

7.0686 

17 

53.407 

/  4 

l/o 

4.908 

Va 

240.52 

Va 

7.8540 

Va 

54978 

/  2 

3A 

5.939 

18 

254.46 

3,  4 

8.6394 

18 

56.549 

/  * 

3 

7068 

Va 

26880 

3 

9.4248 

l/o 

58.119 

i/. 

8295 

19 

28352 

l/4 

10.210 

19 

59.690 

/  4 

!/„ 

9.621 

Va 

29864 

Va 

10.996 

Va 

61.261 

/   * 

3  A 

11.044 

20 

314.16 

3/4 

11.781 

20 

62.832 

/  4 

4 

12.566 

Va 

330.06 

4 

12.566 

Va 

64.403 

Vo 

15.904 

21 

346.36 

Va 

14137 

21 

65973 

/  2 

5 

19.635 

Va 

363.05 

15.708 

l/o 

67.544 

l/o 

23.758 

22 

380.13 

Va 

17.279 

22 

69.115 

/a 
g 

26  274 

V* 

397.60 

6 

18850 

Va 

70686 

Vo 

33.183 

23 

415.47 

Va 

20420 

23 

72.257 

/  2 

7 

38.484 

Va 

433.73 

7 

21991 

Va 

73.827 

l/o 

44.178 

24 

452.39 

Va 

23562 

24 

75.398 

/  2 
3 

50265 

Va 

471.43 

8 

25.133 

Va 

76.969 

Va 

56.745 

Va 

26.704 

To  find  diameter  of  a  circle  when  circumference  is  given, 
multiply  the  given  circumference  by  .31831. 

To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle  when  diameter  is  given, 
multiply  the  given  diameter  by  3.1416. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     161 


CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES 


Diam 

Circum 

Area 

Diam 

Circum 

Area 

1 

3.1416 

.7854 

64 

201.06 

3216.99 

2 

6.2832 

3.1416 

65 

204.20 

3318.31 

3 

9.4248 

7.0686 

66 

207.34 

3421.19 

4 

12.5664 

12.5664 

67 

210.49 

3525.65 

5 

15.7080 

19.635 

68 

213.63 

3631  .68 

6 

18.850 

28.274 

69 

216.77 

3739.28 

7 

21.991 

38.485 

70 

219.91 

3848.45 

8 

25.133 

50.2-36 

71 

223.05 

3959.19 

9 

28.274 

63.617 

72 

226.19 

4071  .50 

10 

31.416 

78.540 

73 

229.34 

4185.39 

11 

34.558 

95.033 

74 

232.48 

4300.84 

12 

37.699 

113.1 

75 

235.62 

4417.86 

13 

40.841 

132.73 

76 

238.76 

4536.46 

14 

43.982 

153.94 

77 

241.90 

4656.63 

15 

47.124 

176.71 

78 

245.04 

4778.36 

16 

50.265 

201.06 

79 

248.19 

4901.67 

17 

53.407 

226.98 

80 

251  .33 

5026.55 

18 

56.549 

254.47 

81 

254.47 

5153. 

19 

59.690 

283.53 

82 

257.61 

5281.02 

20 

62.832 

314.16 

83 

260.75 

5410.61 

21 

65.973 

346.36 

84 

263.89 

5541.77 

22 

69.115 

380.13 

85 

267.04 

5674.50 

23 

72.257 

415.48 

86 

270.18 

5808.80 

24 

75.398 

452.39 

87 

273.32 

5944.68 

25 

78.540 

490.87 

88 

276.46 

6082.12 

26 

81.681 

530.93 

89 

279.60 

6221.14 

27 

84.823 

572.56 

90 

282,74 

6361  .73 

28 

87.965 

615.75 

91 

285.88 

6503.88 

29 

91.106 

660.52 

92 

289.03 

6647.61 

30 

94.248 

706.86 

93 

292.17 

6792.91 

31 

97.389 

754.77 

94 

295.31 

6939.78 

32 

100.53 

804.25 

95 

298.45 

7088.22 

33 

103.67 

855.30 

96 

301  .59 

7238.23 

34 

106.81 

907.92 

97 

304.73 

7339.81 

35 

109.96 

962.11 

98 

307.88 

7542.96 

36 

113.10 

1017.88 

99 

311.02 

7697.69 

37 

116.24 

1075.21 

100 

314.16 

7853.98 

38 

119.38 

1134.11 

101 

317.30 

8011.85 

39 

122.52 

1194.59 

102 

320.44 

8171.28 

40 

125.66 

1256.64 

103 

323.58 

8332.29 

41 

128.81 

1320.25 

104 

326.73 

8494.87 

42 

131.95 

1385.44 

105 

329.87 

8659.01 

43 

135.09 

1452.20 

106 

333.01 

8824.73 

44 

138.23 

1520.53 

107 

336.15 

8992.02 

45 

141.37 

1590.43 

108 

339.29 

9160.88 

46 

144.51 

1661.90 

109 

342.43 

9831  .32 

47 

147.65 

1734.94 

110 

345.58 

9503.32 

48 

150.80 

1809.56 

111 

348.72 

9676.89 

49 

153.94 

1885.74 

112 

351.86 

9852.03 

50 

157.08 

1963.50 

113 

355. 

10028.75 

51 

160.22 

2042.82 

114 

358.14 

10207.03 

52 

163.36 

2123.72 

115 

361.28 

10386.89 

53 

166.50 

2206.18 

116 

364.42 

10568.32 

54 

169.65 

2290.22 

117 

367.57 

10751.32 

55 

172.79 

2375.83 

118 

370.71 

10935.88 

56 

175.93 

2463.01 

119 

373.85 

11122.02 

57 

179.07 

2551.76 

120 

376.99 

11309.73 

58 

182.21 

2642.08 

121 

380.13 

11499.01 

59 

185.35 

2733.97 

122 

383.27 

11689.87 

60 

188.50 

2827.43 

123 

386.42 

11882.29 

61 

191  .64 

2922.47 

124 

389.56 

12076.28 

62 

194.78 

3019.07 

125 

392.70 

12271.85 

63 

197.92 

3117-25 

126 

395.84 

12468.98 

162     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


U.  S.  GALL  IN  ROUND  TANKS 

For  One  Ft  in  Depth 


Diana 
of 
Tanks 

No. 
U.  S. 
Gall 

CF  and 
Area  in 

SF 

Diam 
of 
Tanks 

No. 

U.  S. 
Gall 

CFand 
Area  in 

SF 

Diam 
of 
Tanks 

No. 
U.  S. 
Gall 

CF  and 
Area  in 

SF 

1 

5.87 

.785 

5'  8" 

188.66 

25.22 

19' 

2120.90 

283.53 

1   1" 

6.89 

.922 

5'  9" 

194.25 

25.97 

19'  3" 

2177.10 

291.04 

1   2" 

8. 

1.069 

5'  10" 

199.92 

26.73  ' 

19'  6" 

2234. 

298.65 

1   3" 

9.18 

1.227 

5'  11" 

205.67 

27.49 

19'  9" 

2291.70 

306.35 

1   4" 

10.44 

1.396, 

6' 

211.51 

28.27  r 

20' 

2350.10 

314.16 

1   5" 

11.79 

1.576 

6'  3" 

229.50 

30.68 

20'  3" 

2409.20 

322.06 

1   6" 

13.22 

1.767 

6'  6" 

248.23 

33.18 

20'  6" 

2469.10 

330.06 

1   7" 

14.73 

1.969 

6'  9" 

267.69 

35.78 

20'  9" 

2529.60 

338.16 

1   8" 

16.32 

2.182 

7' 

287.88 

38.48 

21' 

2591. 

346.36 

1   9" 

17.99 

2.405 

7'  3" 

308.81 

41.28 

21'  3" 

2653. 

354.66 

1  10" 

19.75 

2.640 

7'  6" 

330.48 

44.18 

21'  6" 

2715.80 

363.05 

1  11" 

21.58 

2.  885' 

r  9" 

352.88 

47.17 

21'  9" 

2779.30 

371.54 

2' 

23.50 

3.142 

8' 

376.01 

50.27 

22' 

2843.60 

380.13 

2'  1" 

25.50 

3.409 

8'  3" 

399'88 

53.46 

22'  3" 

2908.60 

388.82 

2'  2" 

27.58 

3.687 

8'  6" 

424.48 

56.75 

22'  6" 

2974.30 

397.61 

2'  3" 

29.74 

3.976 

8'  9" 

449.82 

60.13 

22'  9" 

3040.80 

406.49 

2'  4" 

31.99 

4.276 

9' 

475.89 

63.62 

23' 

3108. 

415.48 

2'  5" 

34.31 

4.587 

9'  3" 

502.70 

67.20 

23'  3" 

3175.90 

424.56 

2'  6" 

36.72 

4.909 

9'  6" 

530.24 

70.88 

23'  6" 

3244.60 

433.74 

2'  7" 

39.21 

5.241 

9'  9" 

558.51 

74.66 

23'  9" 

3314. 

443.01 

2'  8" 

41.78 

5.585 

10' 

587.52 

78.54 

24' 

3384.10 

452.39 

2'  9* 

44.43 

5.940 

10'  3" 

617.26 

82.52 

24'  3" 

3455. 

461  .86 

2'  10" 

47.16 

6.305 

10'  6" 

640.74 

86.59 

24'  6" 

3526.60 

471.44 

2'  11" 

49.98 

6.681 

10'  9" 

678.95 

90.76 

24'  9" 

3598.90 

481.11 

3' 

52.88 

7.069 

11' 

710.90 

95.03 

25' 

3672. 

490.87 

3'  1* 

55.86 

7.467 

11'  3" 

743.58 

99.40 

25'  3" 

3745.80 

500.74 

3'  2" 

58.92 

7.876 

11'  6" 

776.99 

103.87 

25'  6" 

3820.30 

510.71 

3'  3" 

62.06 

8.296 

11'  9" 

811.14 

108.43 

25'  9" 

3895.60 

520.77 

3'  4" 

65.28 

8.727 

12' 

846.03 

113.10   26' 

3971.60 

530.93 

3'  5" 

68.58 

9.168 

12'  3" 

881.65 

117.86 

26'  3" 

4048.40 

541.19 

3'  6" 

71.97 

9.621 

12'  6" 

918. 

122.72 

26'  6" 

4125.90 

551.55 

3'  7" 

75.44 

10.085 

12'  9" 

955.09 

127.68 

26'  9" 

4204.10 

562. 

3'  8" 

78.99 

10.559 

13' 

992.91 

132.73 

27' 

4283. 

572.66 

3'  9" 

82.62 

11.045 

13'  3" 

1031.50 

137.89 

27'  3" 

4362.70 

583.21 

3'  10" 

86.33 

11.541 

13'  6" 

1070.80 

143.14 

27'  6" 

4443.10 

593.96 

3'  11" 

90.13 

12.048 

13'  9" 

1110.80 

148.49 

27'  9" 

4524.30 

604.81 

4' 

94. 

12.566 

14' 

1151.50 

153.94 

28' 

4606.20 

615.75 

4'  1" 

97.96 

13.095 

14'  3" 

1193. 

159.48 

28'  3" 

4688.80 

626.80 

4'  2" 

102. 

13.635 

14'  6" 

1235.30 

165.13 

28'  6" 

4772.10 

637.94 

4'  3" 

106.12 

14.186 

14'  9" 

1278.20 

170.87 

28'  9" 

4856.20 

649.18 

4'  4" 

110.32 

14.748 

15' 

1321.90 

176.71 

29' 

4941. 

660.52 

4'  5" 

114.61 

15.321 

15'  3" 

1366.40 

182.65 

29'  3" 

5026.60 

671.96 

4'  6" 

118.97 

15.90 

15'  6" 

1411.50 

188.69 

29'  6" 

5112.90 

683.49 

4'  7" 

123.42 

16.50 

15'  9" 

1457.40 

194.83 

29'  9" 

5199.90 

695.13 

4'  8" 

127.95 

17.10 

16' 

1504.10 

201.06 

30' 

5287.70 

706.86 

4'  9" 

132.56 

17.72 

16'  3" 

1551  .40 

207.39 

i  30'  3" 

5376.20 

718.69 

4'  10" 

137.25 

18.35 

16'  6" 

1599.50 

213.82 

30'  6" 

5465.40 

730.62 

4'  11" 

142.02 

18.99 

16'  9" 

1648.40 

220.35 

30'  9" 

5555.40 

742.64 

5' 

146.88 

19.63 

17' 

1697.90 

226.98 

31' 

5646.10 

754.77 

5'  1" 

151.82 

20.29 

17'  3" 

1748.20 

233.71 

31'  3" 

5737.50 

766.99 

5'  2" 

156.83 

20.97 

17'  6" 

1799.30 

240.53 

31'  6" 

5829.70 

779.31 

5'  3" 

161.93 

21.65 

17'  9" 

1851.10 

247.45 

31'  9" 

5922.60 

791.73 

5'  4" 

167.12 

22.34 

18' 

1903.60 

254.47 

32' 

6016.20 

804.25 

5'  5" 

172.38 

23.04 

18'  3* 

1956.80 

261  .59 

32'  3" 

6110.60 

816.86 

5'  6" 

177.72 

23.76 

18'  6" 

2010.80 

268.80 

32'  6" 

6205.70 

829.58 

5'  r 

183.15 

24.48 

18'  9* 

2065.50 

276.12 

32'  9" 

6301  .50 

842.30 

31i  Gall  to  1  Bbl 

To  find  the  capacity  of  tanks  greater  than  the  largest  given  in  the  table,  look 
in  the  table  for  a  tank  of  one-half  of  the  given  size  and  mult  its  capacity  by 
4,  or  one  of  one-third  its  size  and  mult  its  capacity  by  9,  etc. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     163 


-!->           Cl 

05    t-    CO    CO    CO   «    N 

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t-   «   t-   N   I-   «   t- 

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43     ° 

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l-OlO-*r(<CONrHOOO500t-O 

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M  M  to  M  M 

164    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


WEIGHT  OF  FLAT  BAR  IRON  PER  LF 


ridth 
xln. 

Thickness  in  In. 

A 

i 

A 

i 

A 

i 

A 

i 

i 

I 

I 

1 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

Ibs 

.21 

.42 

.63 

.84 

1.05 

1.26 

1.47 

1.68 

2.11 

2.53 

2  95 

3.37 

.24 

.47 

.71 

.95 

1.18 

1.42 

1.66 

1.90 

2.37 

2.84 

3.32 

3.79 

.26 

.53 

.79 

1.05 

1.32 

1.58 

1.84 

2.11 

2  63 

3.16 

3.68 

4.21 

.29 

.58 

.87 

1.16 

.45 

1.74 

2.03 

2  32 

2.89 

3.47 

4.05 

4.63 

.32 

.63 

.95 

1.26 

.58 

1.90 

2.21 

2.53 

3.16 

3.79 

4.42 

5.05 

.34 

.68 

1.03 

1.37 

.71 

2.05 

2.39 

2.74 

3.42 

4.11 

4.79 

5.47 

.37 

.74 

1.11 

1.47 

.84 

2.21 

2.58 

2.95 

3.68 

4.42 

5.16 

5.89 

.40 

.79 

1.18 

1.58 

.97 

2.37 

2.76 

3.16|  3.95 

4.74 

5.53 

6.32 

,42 

.84 

1.26 

1.68 

2.11 

2.53 

2.95 

3.37 

4.21 

5.05 

5.89 

6.74 

i'.'.'.'. 

.45 

.90 

1.34 

1.79 

2.24 

2.68 

3.13 

3.58 

4.47 

5.37 

6.26 

7.16 

.47 

.95 

1.42 

1.90 

2.37 

2.84 

3.32 

3.79 

4.74 

5.68 

6.83 

7.58 

.50 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3.00 

3.50 

4.00 

5.00 

6.00 

7.00 

8.00 

.53 

1.05 

1.58 

2.11 

2.63 

3.16 

3.68 

4.21 

5.26 

6.32 

7.37 

8.42 

[.'.'.'. 

.55 

1.11 

1.66 

2.21 

2.76 

3.32 

3.87 

4.42 

5.53 

6.63 

7.74 

8.84 

\.... 

.58 

1.16 

1.74 

2.32 

2.89 

3.47 

4.05 

4.63 

5.79 

6.95 

8.10 

9.26 

.63 

1.26 

1.90 

2.5 

3.16 

3.79 

4.42 

5.05 

6.32 

7.58 

8.84 

10.10 

i.'.'.'. 

.68 

1.37 

2.05 

2.74 

3.42 

4.11 

4.79 

5.47 

6.84 

8.21 

9.58 

10.95 

!.... 

.74 

1.47 

2.21 

2.95 

3.68 

4.42 

5.16 

5.89 

7.37 

8.84 

10.32 

11.79 

i  '.::: 

.84 
,95 

1.68 
1.90 

2.53 

2.84 

3.37 
3.79 

4.21 
4.74 

5.05 
5.68 

5.89 
6.63 

6.74 

7.58 

8.4210.1011.7913.47 
9.4711.38:13.26!l5.16 

1.0 

2.11 

3.16 

4.21 

5.26 

6.32 

7.37 

8.42 

10.53 

12.63:14.74116.84 

i"" 

1.16 

2.32 

3.47 

4.63 

5.79 

6.95 

8.10 

9.  26|ll.58ll3.  89|16.21  18.  52 

1.26 

2.53 

3.79 

5.05 

6.32 

7.58 

8.84 

10.  10ll2.  63  15.  16  17.  68  20.  21 

i'-'   '. 

1.36 

2.73 

4.10 

5.47 

6.84 

8.21 

9.58 

10.  94  13.68:16.  42il9.  16,21  .88 

1.47 

2.94 

4.42 

5.90 

7.36 

8.84 

10.32 

11.7914.74 

17.6820.6423.58 

i"  ' 

1.58 

3.16 

4.74 

6.32 

7.90 

9.4811.06 

12.64115.78 

18.9421.1125.50 

1.68 

3.36 

5.05 

6.74 

8.42 

10.10 

11.78 

13.48 

16.8420.2023.5826.34 

i"  ' 

1.79 

3.58 

5.36 

7.16 

8.94 

10.74 

12.52 

14.32 

17.  90  21.  48125.06  28.  53 

*:;  : 

1.90 
2.00 

3.79 
4.00 

5.68 
6.00 

7.58 
8.00 

9  48 
10.00 

11.36 
12.00 

13.26 
14.00 

15.1618.  95|22  .  75:26  .  52|30  .  32 
16  .  00  20  .  00  24  .  00  28  .  00  32  .  00 

i"  ' 

2.10 
2.21 

4.21 
4.41 

6.32 
6.64 

8.42 
8.84 

10.52 
11.05 

12.64)14,74 
13.26115.48 

16.8421.0525.2629.4833.68 
17  .  68  22  .  10;26  .  52  30  .  95  35  .  36 

2.32 

4.64 

6.95 

9.26 

11.58 

13.90 

16.21 

18.  52  23.  16)27.78  32.  42  37.  04 

i'.'  '- 

2  42 
2.52 

4.84 
5.05 

7.26 

7.58 

9.  68  12.  10  14.  52  16.  94  19.  36  24.  20129.  06  33.  90|38.  74 
10  .00  12  .  6415  .  16!17  .  68'20  .  20'25  .  2630  .  32'35  .36140  .  40 

WEIGHTS  AND  DIMENSIONS  OF  ROUND  AND  SQ  BAR 
IRON   PER  RUNNING  FT  IN   LBS 


Dia-n  Wt  per  ft,  Ibs 

Diam 

Wt  per  ft,  Ibs 

Diam 

Wt  per  ft,  Ibs!  Diam 

Wt  per  ft,  Ibs 

lu 

Ed 

Sq 

In 

Rd        SQ 

In 

Rd 

Sa 

In 

Rd 

Sa 

t: 

.01 
.0411 

.0131 
.0525! 

It: 

2.975 
3.338 

3.80 
4.25 

2J... 

2i.  . 

11  9 
13  3 

15.15 
17. 

4 

4 

.    . 

44.85   57.2 
47.54   60.75 

A.. 

.0925 

.1182: 

i* 

3.725 

4.73 

2 

14.7518  5 

4 

50.33 

64.35 

J... 

.1651 

.2103i 

H... 

4.12 

5.25 

2  a 

16.41 

20.5 

4 

53.32 

68. 

t: 

.2573 
.371 

.3200; 

.4735 

It: 

4.545 
5. 

5.78 
6.35 

2J; 
2; 

18  1 
19.85 

23  1 
25.2 

4 

•    • 

56.34 
59.44 

72. 
75.65 

t: 

.505 
.657 

.6445 

.84 

\t: 

5.455    6.95 
5.945   7.55 

2i 

3 

21.5 
23.7 

27  5 
30.05 

4 
5 

62.62 
65.88 

79.80 
83.8 

.835 

1.063 

l  A-- 

6.445 

8  2 

3|... 

25.55 

32.75 

5J... 

69.23 

88.25 

4  . 

1.031 

1.314 

it   .  . 

6  975 

8.85 

3 

27.81 

35.5 

5J.  .  . 

72.65 

92.5 

H-  • 

1  235 

1.59 

ijt.. 

7.52 

9.57 

3; 

29.8538.25 

5J... 

76.18   97.15 

3  • 

1.475 

1.891 

8.05 

10.30 

3.' 

32.25 

41.15 

5J.  .  . 

79  75101. 

ii   • 

1.74 

2.221 

1  Jj- 

8.65    11.05 

3j 

34.4544.15 

5f... 

83.45105.8 

i- 

2.015 

2.575 

1  i 

9.25 

11.83 

32 

37  1 

47.  20 

51... 

87.20110.5 

i4-  • 

2  317 

2.95 

1  1  $ 

9.9      12.62 

3! 

39  5 

50.25 

5|... 

91.50115.15 

1      ..2.625 

3.35 

2  ... 

10.55  113.4 

14  ... 

41.95:63.75 

6  ... 

95.     [120.25 

For  steel,  mult  tabular  number  above  (for  size)  by  J-OJ, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     165 


LUMBER    RECKONER 


Length  in  Feet 

Size  in 

In 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

2x4 

6$ 

8 

94 

10$ 

12 

134 

14$ 

16 

174 

18$ 

20 

214 

2x6 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

26 

28 

30 

32 

2x8 

134 

16 

18$ 

214 

24 

26$ 

294 

32 

34$ 

374 

40 

42  § 

2  xlO 

16$ 

20 

234 

26$ 

30 

334 

36$ 

40 

434 

46$ 

50 

2  x!2 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

2  x!4 

234 

28 

32$ 

374 

42 

46$ 

514 

56 

60$ 

654 

70 

2  x!6 

32 

374 

42$ 

48 

534 

58$ 

64 

694 

74$ 

80 

854 

2Jxl2 

2? 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

2Jxl4 

35 

40* 

46$ 

524 

584 

64i 

70 

75| 

81$ 

874 

934 

24x16 

334 

40 

46| 

534 

60 

66$ 

734 

80 

86$ 

934 

100 

IOC* 

3x6 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27 

30 

33 

36 

39 

42 

45 

48 

3x8 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

3  xlO 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

80 

3  x!2 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

96 

3  x!4 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

77 

84 

91 

98 

105 

112 

3  x!6 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

112 

120 

128 

4x4 

134 

16 

18$ 

214 

24 

26$ 

294 

32 

34$ 

374 

40 

42$ 

4x6 

20 

24 

28 

32 

36 

40 

44 

48 

52 

56 

60 

64 

4x8 
4  xlO 

26$ 
334 

32 
40 

374 

46$ 

42$ 
534 

48 
60 

11 

58$ 
734 

64 
80 

694 
86$ 

74$ 
934 

80 
100 

854 
10G$ 

4  x!2 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

112 

120 

128 

4  x!4 

46$ 

56 

654 

74$ 

84 

934 

102$ 

112 

1214 

130$ 

140 

1494 

6x6 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

66 

72 

78 

84 

90 

96 

6x8 

40 

48 

56 

64 

72 

80 

88 

96 

104 

112 

120 

128 

6  xlO 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

110 

120 

130 

140 

150 

160 

6  x!2 

60 

72 

84 

96 

108 

120 

132 

144 

156 

168 

180 

196 

6  x!4 

70 

84 

98 

112 

126 

140 

154 

168 

182 

190 

210 

224 

6  x!6 

80 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

208 

224 

240 

256 

8x8 
8  xlO 

534 
66$ 

64 
80 

74  § 
934 

854 
106$ 

96 
120 

106$ 
1334 

1174 
146$ 

128 
160 

138$ 
1734 

1494 
1SG< 

ICO 
200 

170$ 
2134 

8  x!2 

80 

96 

112 

128 

144 

160 

176 

192 

208 

224 

240 

256 

8  x!4 

934 

112 

130$ 

1494 

168 

186$ 

2054 

224 

242$ 

2614 

280 

298$ 

10  xlO 

834 

100 

116$ 

1334 

150 

166$ 

1834 

200 

216$ 

233  i 

250 

2GG$ 

10  x!2 

100 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

220 

240 

260 

280 

300 

320 

lOx  14 
10  x!6 
12  x!2 

116$ 
1334 
120 

1140 
160 
144 

1634 
186$ 
168 

186$ 
2134 
192 

210 
240 
216 

2334 
266$ 
240 

256$ 
2934 
264 

280 
320 

288 

3034 
346$ 
312 

326^ 
373^ 
336 

350 
400 
360 

3734 
426* 
384 

12  x!4 

140 

168 

196 

224 

252 

280 

308 

336 

364 

392 

420 

448 

12  x!6 

160 

192 

224 

256 

288 

320 

352 

384 

416 

448 

480 

512 

14  x!4 

1634 

196 

228$ 

2614 

294 

326$ 

3594 

392 

424$ 

4574 

490 

522f 

14  x!6 

1863 

224 

2614 

298$ 

336  3734 

410$ 

448 

4854 

5223 

560 

5974 

WEIGHTS  OF  VARIOUS  SUBSTANCES   PER  CF 


Names  of  Substances 

Ash,  American  White,  Dry 

Asphaltum 

Brass  (Copper  and  Zinc)  Cast 

Brass  Rolled 

Brick,  Best  Pressed 

Brick,  Common  Hard 

Brick,  Soft,  Inferior 

Brick,  Fire 

Brickwork,  Pressed  Brick 

Brickwork,  Ordinary 


Average 

Wgt,  Lbs 

38 

87 

504 

524 

150 

125 

100 

137 

140 

112 


166     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


Average 

Names  of  Substances  Wgt,  Lbs 

Cement,  Hydraulic,  Ground,  Loose,  American,  RoBendale 56 

Cement,  Hydraulic,  Ground,  Loose,  American,  Louisville 50 

Cement,  Hydraulic,  Ground,  Loose,  English.  Portland 90 

Cherry,  Dry 42 

Chestnut,  Dry 41 

Concrete 140 

Copper,  Cast 543 

Copper,  Rolled 548 

Ebony,  Dry 76 

Elm,  Dry 35 

Flint 162 

Glass,  Common  Window 157 

Gneiss,  Common 168 

Granite 170 

Gravel,  about  the  same  as  Sand,  which  see 

Hemlock,  Dry 25 

Hickory,  Dry 53 

Ice 50  to    58 

Iron,  Cast 450 

Iron,  Wrt.  Purest 485 

Iron,  Wrt,  Average 480 

Lead 711 

Lime,  Quick,  Ground,  Loose,  or  in  Small  Lumps 53 

Lime,  Quick,  Ground,  Loose,  Thoroughly  Shaken 75 

Lime,  Quick,  Ground.  Loose,  Per  Struck  Bushel 66 

Limestones  and  Marbles 168 

Limestones  and  Marbles,  Loose,  in  Irregular  Fragments 96 

Mahogany,  Spanish,  Dry 

Mahogany,  Honduras,  Dry 35 

Maple,  Dry 49 

Marbles,  see  Limestones. 

Masonry,  of  Granite  or  Limestone,  well  dressed 165 

Masonry,  of  Mortar  Rubbls 154 

Masonry,  of  Dry  Rubble  (well  Scabbled) 138 

Masonry,  of  Sandstone,  well  dressed 144 

Mortar,  Hardened 103 

Oak,  Live,  Dry 59 

Oak,  White,  Dry 52 

Oak,  Other  Kinds 32  to    45 

Pine,  White,  Dry 25 

Pine,  Yellow,  Northern 34 

Pine,  Yellow,  Southern 45 

Plaster  of  Paris 74 

Quartz,  Common,  Pure 165 

Sand,  of  Pure  Quartz,  Dry,  Loose 90  to  106 

Sand,  Well  Shaken 99  to  117 

Sand,  Perfectly  Wet 120  to  140 

Sandstones,  Fit  for  Building 151 

Shales,  Red  or  Black 162 

Slate 175 

Snow,  freshly  fallen 5  to    12 

Snow,  Moistened  and  Compacted  by  Rain 15  to    50 

Spruce,  Dry 25 

Steel 490 

Sycamore,  Dry *< 

Tar .5* 

Tin,  Cast 459 

Walnut,  Black,  Dry 

Water,  Pure  Rain  or  Distilled,  at  60°  Fahrenheit 62* 

Water,  Sea .§J 

Zinc  or  Spelter 437 

Green  Timbers  usually  weigh  from  one-fifth  to  one-half  more  than  dry. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    167 

A  Barrel  contains  3ll/2  gallons;  but  for  tar  and  such 
materials  50  gallons  is  the  standard. 

A  Builder's  Square  contains  100  square  feet,  or  a  space 
10'  x  10'. 

A  Cord  of  wood  is  4'  x  4'  x  8'  =  128  cubic  feet;  and  measured 
loose  for  stone. 

A  Cord  of  Stone  in  Chicago  is  100  cubic  feet  when  in  the 
wall. 

A  Perch  depends  upon  longitude  and  latitude.  It  is  16%, 
221/3,  24%,  and  25,  with  several  back  counties  yet  to  be  heard 
from.  Never  use  it.  Let  both  perch  and  cord  die,  and  use 
only  cubic  yards  or  feet. 

The  Toise  is  another  chameleon.  It  belongs  to  Canada. 
It  is,  in  Perth,  Ont.,  36  cubic  feet;  in  Hamilton,  70  cubic 
feet;  in  Toronto,  54  cubic  feet;  in  Montreal,  86  cubic  feet. 


A   TABLE   OF    SQUARES    AND    SQUARE   ROOTS 

Abbreviation.  —  Ordinary  tables  of  this  kind  have  cubes, 
cube  roots,  and  reciprocals.  I  have  often  had  occasion  in 
contracting  to  use  square  root,  but  some  of  the  best  contrac- 
tors I  know  have  never  even  heard  of  it.  They  do  not  use  it 
in  their  business.  Cube  root  I  have  never  used  once  since  I 
learned  what  it  meant  at  school.  Judging  by  this,  I  conclude 
that  it  is  not  of  so  very  much  value  in  contracting,  whatever 
it  may  be  in  some  other  businesses;  and,  therefore,  cubes, 
cube  roots,  and  reciprocals  are  not  included  in  this  series  of 
tables. 

Use.  —  Some  contractors  may  ask,  Of  what  value  is  square 
root?  For  one  thing,  it  is  useful  in  taking  off  lengths  of 
long  trusses  when  they  are  drawn  to  1-16  inch,  or  less  to  the 
foot,  and  it  is  risky  to  scale  them  in  the  ordinary  way. 
The  drawings  are  not  accurately  made,  and  in  many  specifica- 
tions it  is  forbidden  to  scale  them  at  all,  as  the  architects  do 
not  want  to  be  held  responsible  for  errors.  In  cases  when  a 
change  is  made  in  the  width  of  a  building  when  the  drawings 
are  nearly  finished,  it  is  often  done  by  figures  only,  and  not 
by  remaking  the  entire  set. 

Example  1.  —  How,  then,  is  the  length  obtained  by  square 
root?  Let  us  take  a  building  160  feet  wide  over  the  walls. 


168     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

From  the  outside  of  the  wall  to  the  center  would  be  80  feet. 
Put  the  rise  at  7  feet,  which  is  enough  for  a  gravel  roof. 

Turning  the  feet  into  inches  for  a  more  accurate  answer 
we  have  960  and  84.  The  square  of  960  in  the  proper  column 
of  the  tables  is  921,600;  and  of  84,  is  7,056.  Added  together 
the  sum  is  928,656. 

Looking  down  the  column  of  squares  the  nearest  figure  to 
this  is  929,296,  which  is  a  trifle  over  the  required  size. 
Directly  on  the  left,  in  the  No.  column,  we  see  that  the  square 
root  of  that  is  964,  or  80  feet,  4  inches.  This  is  the  distance 
from  the  outside  of  the  wall  to  the  center  of  the  roof  on  the 
rake. 

Example  2.  —  The  rise  in  this  last  case  is  so  small  that  it 
would  be  practically  safe  for  the  contractor  to  take  half  the 
width  of  the  building,  but  it  is  different  with  a  churcK  truss 
of  the  old  high  style.  If  the  figures  are  even  it  is  not 
necessary  to  turn  them  into  inches.  It  was  done  in  the  last 
ease  to  show  how  to  get  the  length  when  there  were  odd  inches, 
for  the  rise  was  low. 

Take  a  building  60  feet  wide  and  let  the  rise  be  38  feet. 
What  is  the  distance  from  the  outside  edge  of  the  wall  to 
the  peak?  Half  the  width  is  30  feet.  The  table  gives  900  and 
1,444,  for  in  getting  the  square  root  the  first  thing  to  be  done 
is  to  multiply  the  lengths  by  themselves,  or  get  their  squares, 
and  then  add  the  totals  together.  In  this  case  the  sum  is 
2,344.  Looking  down  the  square  column  the  nearest  sum  to 
this  is  2,304,  and  the  number  on  the  left,  the  required  length, 
is  48  feet. 

For  some  purposes  this  might  be  exact  enough,  but  to  get 
more  accurate  figures  we  can  take  the  inches.  On  the  level 
there  are  360,  and  on  the  rise,  456.  The  squares  of  these 
found  in  the  table  are  129,600  and  207,936,  a  total  of  337,536. 
The  nearest  number  to  this  in  the  table  is  337,561,  which  is 
practically  exact.  To  the  left  the  length  is  given  in  inches — 
581,  or  48  feet  5  inches. 

Why?  —  The  reason  for  anything  is  always  interesting  and 
useful.  Why  do  the  two  numbers  have  to  be  squared  and 
added?  It  is  on  the  same  principle  as  12  on  the  blade,  and 
12  on  the  tongue  of  a  square  give  17  across  the  angle.  When 
12  is  squared  it  makes  144,  and  two  numbers  like  this,  288. 
Looking  for  the  square  we  find  that  289  is  the  nearest  number, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    169 

so  that  the  17  which  carpenters  always  use  is  not  strictly 
accurate,  but  the  difference  of  a  thick  pencil  and  a  thin  one 
will  equalize  matters.  All  through  there  is  never  any  chance 
of  getting  the  exact  mathematical  sizes  on  stone  and  lumber. 

Squaring  a  Building.  —  It  is  on  this  principle  that  a  build- 
ing is  squared  as  described  in  Chapter  X,  Book  I.  The  square 
of  8  is  64,  and  of  6  is  36.  These  two  numbers  added  together 
make  100,  the  square  root  of  which  is  10. 

Any  other  set  of  figures  might  be  taken  if  desired  to  get  a 
wider  stretch,  although  6,  8,  and  10  are  almost  everywhere 
employed  for  this  purpose.  Another  set  might  be  12,  16,  and 
20,  and  a  steel  tape  used  across  the  corner,  or  a  long  rod. 
As  a  still  longer  check  we  can  take  24,  32,  and  40. 

Take  a  square  of  any  kind  and  lay  out  two  lines  at  right 
angles.  Mark  12  inches  on  each  from  the  point  or  corner 
where  the  lines  join.  Connect  these  two  points  by  a  line 
which  will  be  17  inches  long.  There  you  have  an  angle  that 
all  carpenters  are  acquainted  with. 

Now  draw  three  squares  out  on  the  three  sides — two  at 
12  inches,  and  one  at  17.  The  square  root  theory  proceeds 
on  the  basis  that  the  large  square  has  exactly  the  same  area 
as  the  two  small  ones.  Now  suppose  we  get  the  area  of 
the  two  small  ones.  We  already  know  that  it  is  288  square 
inches.  Evidently,  then,  the  large  one  must  have  the  same 
area.  As  each  side  of  a  square  must  be  the  same  length,  we 
have  to  find  the  number  which,  multiplied  by  itself,  will 
give  288,  or,  in  other  words,  the  square  root,  which  is  17. 

Any  ordinary"  arithmetic  will  show  how  to  extract  this 
square  root.  For  most  uses  the  table  will  serve. 


170     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


A  TABLE  OF  SQUARES   AND  SQUARE  ROOTS 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

1 

1 

1-000000 

41 

1681 

6-403124 

2 

4 

1-414214 

42 

1764 

6-480741 

3 

9 

1-732051 

43 

1849 

6-557439 

4 

16 

2-000000 

44 

1936 

6-633250 

5 

25 

2-236068 

45 

2025 

6-708204 

6 

36 

2-449490 

46 

2116 

6-782330 

7 

49 

2-645751 

47 

2209 

6-855655 

8 

64 

2-828427 

48 

2304 

6-928203 

9 

81 

3-000000 

49 

2401 

7-000000 

10 

100 

3-162278 

50 

2500 

7-071068 

11 

121 

3-316625 

51 

2601 

7-141428 

12 

144 

3-464102 

52 

2704 

7-211103 

13 

169 

3-605551 

53 

2809 

7-280110 

14 

196 

3-741657 

54 

2916 

7-348469 

15 

225 

3-872983 

55 

3025 

7-416198 

16 

256 

4-000000 

56 

3136 

7-483315 

17 

289 

4-123106 

57 

3249 

7-549834 

18 

324 

4-242641 

58 

3364 

7-615773 

19 

361 

4-358899 

59 

3481 

7-681146 

20 

400 

4-472136 

60 

3600 

7-745967 

21 

441 

4-582576 

61 

3721 

7-810250 

22 

484 

4-690416 

62 

3844 

7-874008 

23 

529 

4-795832 

63 

3969 

7-937254 

24 

576 

4-898979 

64 

4096 

8-000000 

25 

625 

5-000000 

65 

4225 

8-062258 

20 

676 

5-099020 

66 

4356 

8-124038 

27 

729 

5-196152 

67 

4489 

8-185353 

28 

784 

5-291503 

68 

4624 

8-246211 

29 

841 

5-385165 

69 

4761 

8-306624 

30 

900 

5-477226 

70 

4900 

8-366600 

31 

961 

5-567764 

71 

5041 

8-426150 

32 

1024 

5-656854 

72 

5184 

8-485281 

33 

1089 

5-744563 

73 

5329 

8-544004 

34 

1156 

5-830952 

74 

5476 

8-602325 

35 

1225 

5-916080 

75 

5625 

8-660254 

30 

1296 

6-000000 

76 

5776 

8-717798 

37 

1369 

6-082763 

77 

5929 

8-774964 

38 

1444 

6-164414 

78 

6084 

8-831761 

39 

1521 

6-244998 

79 

6241 

8-888194 

40 

1600 

6-324555 

80 

6400 

8-944272 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    171 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

81 

6561 

9-000000 

129 

16641 

11-357817 

82 

6724 

9-055385 

130 

16900 

11-401754 

83 

6889 

9-110434 

131 

17161 

11-445523 

84 

7056 

9-165151 

132 

17424 

11-489125 

85 

7225 

9-219544 

133 

17689 

11-532563 

86 

7396 

9-273618 

134 

17956 

11-575837 

87 

7569 

9-327379 

135 

18225 

11-618950 

88 

7744 

9-380832 

136 

18496 

11-661904 

89 

7921 

9-433981 

137 

18769 

11-704700 

90 

8100 

9-486833 

138 

19044 

11-747344 

91 

8281 

9-539392 

139 

19321 

11-789826 

92 

8464 

9-591663 

140 

19600 

11-832160 

93 

8649 

9-643651 

141 

19881 

11-874342 

94 

8836 

9-695360 

142 

20164 

11-916375 

95 

9025 

9-746794 

143 

20449 

11-958261 

96 

9216 

9-797959 

144 

20736 

12-000000 

97 

9409 

9-848858 

145 

21025 

12-041595 

98 

9604 

9-899495 

146 

21316 

12-083046 

99 

9801 

9-949874 

147 

21609 

12-124356 

100 

10000 

10-000000 

148 

21904 

12-165525 

101 

10201 

10-049876 

149 

22201 

12-206556 

102 

10404 

10-099505 

150 

22500 

12-247449 

103 

10609 

10-148892 

151 

22801 

12-288206 

104 

10816 

10-198039 

152 

23104 

12-328828 

105 

11025 

10-246951 

153 

23409 

12-369317 

106 

11236 

10-295630 

154 

23716 

12-409674 

107 

11449 

10-344080 

155 

24025 

12-449900 

108 

11664 

10-392305 

156 

24336 

12-489996 

109 

11881 

10-440306 

157 

24649 

12-529964 

110 

12100 

10-488088 

158 

24964 

12-569805 

111 

12321 

10-535654 

159 

25281 

12-609520 

112 

12544 

10-583005 

160 

25600 

12-649111 

113 

12769 

10-630146 

161 

25921 

12-688577 

114 

12996 

10-677078 

162 

26244 

12-727922 

115 

13225 

10-723805 

163 

26569 

12-767145 

116 

13456 

10-770330 

164 

26896 

12-806248 

117 

13689 

10-816654 

165 

27225 

12845233 

118 

13924 

10-862780 

163 

27556 

12-884099 

119 

14161 

10-908712 

167 

27889 

12-922848 

120 

14400 

10-954451 

168 

28224 

12-961481 

121 

14641 

11-000000 

169 

28561 

13-000000 

122 

14884 

11-045361 

170 

28900 

13-038405 

123 

15129 

11-090536 

171 

29241 

13-076697 

124 

15376 

11-135529 

172 

29534 

13-114877 

125 

15625 

11-180340 

173 

29929 

13-152946 

126 

15876 

11-224972 

174 

30276 

13-190906 

127 

16129 

11-269428 

175 

30625 

13228757 

128 

16384 

11-313708 

176 

30976 

13-266499 

172     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

177 

31329 

13-304135 

225 

50625 

15-000000 

178 

31684 

13-341664 

226 

51076 

15-033296 

179 

32041 

13-379088 

227 

51529 

15-066519 

180 

32400 

13-416408 

228 

51984 

15-099669 

181 

32761 

13-453(524 

229 

52441 

15-132746 

182 

33124 

13-490738 

230 

52900 

15-165751 

183 

33489 

13-527749 

231 

53361 

15-198684 

184 

33856 

13-564660 

232 

53824 

15-231546 

185 

34225 

13-601470 

233 

54289 

15-264338 

186 

34596 

13-638182 

234 

54756 

15-297059 

187 

34969 

13-674794 

235 

55225 

15-329710 

188 

35344 

13-711309 

236 

55696 

15-362292 

189 

35721 

13-747727 

237 

56169 

15-394804 

190 

36100 

13-784049 

238 

56644 

15-427249 

191 

36481 

13-820275 

239 

57121 

15-459625 

192 

36864 

13-856406 

240 

57600 

15-491933 

193 

37249 

13-892444 

241 

58081 

15-524175 

194 

37636 

13-928388 

242 

58564 

15-556349 

195 

38025 

13-964240 

243 

59049 

15-588457 

196 

38416 

14-000000 

244 

59536 

15-620499 

197 

38809 

14-035669 

245 

60025 

15-652476 

198 

39204 

14-071247 

246 

60516 

15-684387 

199 

39601 

14-106736 

247 

61009 

15-716234 

200 

40000 

14-142136 

248 

61504 

15-748016 

201 

40401 

14  177447 

249 

62001 

15-779734 

202 

40804 

14-212670 

250 

62500 

15-811388 

203 

41209 

14-247807 

251 

63001 

15-842980 

204 

41616 

14-282857 

252 

63504 

15-874508 

205 

42025 

14-317821 

253 

64009 

15-905974 

206 

42436 

14-352700 

254 

64516 

15-937378 

207 

42849 

14-387495 

255 

65025 

15-968719 

208 

43264 

14-422205 

256 

65536 

16-000000 

209 

43681 

14-456832 

257 

66049 

16-031220 

210 

44100 

14-491377 

258 

66564 

16-062378 

211 

44521 

14-525839 

259 

67081 

16-093477 

212 

44944 

14-560220 

260 

67600 

16-124516 

213 

45369 

14-594520 

261 

68121 

16-155494 

214 

45796 

14-628739 

262 

68644 

16-186414 

215 

46225 

14-662878 

263 

69169 

16-217275 

216 

46656 

14-696939 

264 

69696 

16-248077 

217 

47089 

14-730920 

265 

70225 

16-278821 

218 

47524 

14-764823 

266 

70756 

16-309506 

219 

47961 

14-798649 

267 

71289 

16-340135 

220 

48400 

14-832397 

268 

71824 

16-370706 

221 

48841 

14-866069 

269 

72361 

16-401220 

222 

49284 

14-899664 

270 

72900 

16-431677 

223 

49729 

14-933185 

271 

73441 

16-462078 

224 

50176 

14-966630 

272 

73984 

16-492423 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     173 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

273 

74529 

16-522712 

321 

103041 

17-916473 

274 

75076 

16-552945 

322 

103684 

17-944358 

275 

75625 

16-583124 

323 

104329 

17-972201 

276 

76176 

16-613248 

324 

104976 

18-000000 

277 

76729 

16-643317 

325 

105625 

18-027756 

278 

77284 

16-673332 

326 

106276 

18-055470 

279 

77841 

16-703293 

327 

106929 

18-083141 

280 

78400 

16-733201 

328 

107584 

18-110770 

281 

78961 

16-763055 

329 

108241 

18-138357 

282 

79524 

16-792856 

330 

108900 

18-165902 

283 

80089 

16-8226U4 

331 

109561 

18-193405 

284 

80656 

16-852300 

332 

110224 

18-220867 

285 

81225 

16-881943 

333 

110889 

18-248288 

286 

81796 

16-911535 

334 

111556 

18-275667 

287 

82369 

16-941074 

335 

112225 

18-303005 

288 

82944 

16-970563 

336 

112896 

18-330303 

289 

83521 

17-000000 

337 

113569 

18-357560 

290 

84100 

17-029386 

338 

114244 

18-384776 

291 

84681 

17-058722 

339 

114921 

18-411953 

292 

85264 

17-088008 

340 

115600 

18-439089 

293 

85849 

17-117243 

341 

116281 

18-466185 

294 

86436 

17-146428 

342 

116964 

18493242 

295 

87025 

17-175564 

343 

117649 

18-520259 

296 

87616 

17-204651 

344 

118336 

18-547237 

297 

88209 

17-233688 

345 

119025 

18-574176 

298 

88804 

17-262676 

346 

119716 

18-601075 

299 

89401 

17-291617 

347 

120409 

18-627936 

300 

90000 

17-320508 

348 

121104 

18-654758 

301 

90601 

17-349352 

349 

121801 

18-681542 

302 

91204 

17-378147 

350 

122500 

18-708287 

303 

91809 

17-406895 

351 

123201 

18-734994 

304 

92416 

17-435596 

352 

123904 

18-761663 

305 

93025 

17-464249 

353 

124609 

18-788294 

306 

93636 

17-492856 

354 

125316 

18-814888 

307 

94249 

17-521416 

355 

126025 

18-841444 

308 

94864 

17-549929 

356 

126736 

18-867962 

309 

95481 

17-578396 

357 

127449 

18-894444 

310 

96100 

17-606817 

358 

128164 

18-920888 

311 

96721 

17-635192 

359 

128881 

18-947295 

312 

97344 

17-663522 

360 

129600 

18-973666 

313 

97969 

17-691806 

361 

130321 

19-000000 

314 

98596 

17-720045 

362 

131044 

19-026298 

315 

99225 

17-748239 

363 

131769 

19052559 

316 

99856 

17-776389 

364 

132496 

19-078784 

317 

100489 

17-804494 

365 

133225 

19-104973 

318 

101124 

17-832555 

366 

133956 

19-131127 

319 

101761 

17-860571 

367 

134689 

19-157244 

320 

102400 

17-888544 

368 

135424 

19-183326 

174    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

369 

136161 

19-209373 

417 

173889 

20-420578 

370 

136900 

19-235384 

418 

174724 

20-445048 

371 

137641 

19-261360 

419 

175561 

20-469490 

372 

138384 

19-287302 

420 

176400 

20-493902 

373 

139129 

19-313208 

421 

177241 

20-518285 

374 

139876 

19-339080 

422 

178084 

20-542639 

375 

140625 

19-364917 

423 

178929 

20-566964 

376 

141376 

19-390719 

424 

179776 

20-591260 

377 

142129 

19-416488 

425 

180625 

20-615528 

378 

142884 

19442222 

426 

181476 

20-639767 

379 

143641 

19-467922 

427 

182329 

20-663978 

380 

144400 

19-493589 

428 

183184 

20-688161 

381 

145161 

19519221 

429 

184041 

20-712315 

382 

145924 

19-544820 

430 

184900 

20-736441 

383 

146689 

19-570386 

431 

185761 

20-760540 

384 

147456 

19-595918 

432 

186624 

20-784610 

385 

148225 

19-621417 

433 

187489 

20-808652 

386 

148996 

19-646883 

434 

188356 

20-832667 

387 

149769 

19-672316 

435 

189225 

20-856654 

388 

150544 

19-697716 

436 

190090 

20-880613 

389 

151321 

19-723083 

437 

190969 

20-904545 

390 

152100 

19-748418 

438 

191844 

20-928450 

391 

152881 

19-773720 

439 

192721 

20-952327 

392 

153664 

19-798990 

440 

193600 

20-976177 

393 

154449 

19-824228 

441 

194481 

21-000000 

394 

155236 

19-849433 

442 

195364 

21-023796 

395 

156025 

19-874607 

443 

196249 

21-047565 

396 

156816 

19-899749 

444 

197136 

21-071308 

397 

157609 

19-924859 

445 

198025 

21-095023 

398 

158404 

19-949937 

446 

198916 

21-118712 

399 

159201 

19-974984 

447 

199809 

21-142375 

400 

160000 

20-000000 

448 

200704 

21-166011 

401 

160801 

20-024984 

449 

201601 

21-189620 

402 

161604 

20-049938 

450 

202500 

21-213203 

403 

162409 

20-074860 

451 

203401 

21-236761 

404 

163216 

20-099751 

452 

204304 

21-260292 

405 

164025 

20-124612 

453 

205209 

21-283797 

406 

164836 

20-149442 

454 

206116 

21-307276 

407 

165649 

20-174241 

455 

207025 

21-330729 

408 

166464 

20-199010 

456 

207936 

21-354157 

409 

167281 

20-223748 

457 

208849 

21-377558 

410 

168100 

20-248457 

458 

209764 

21-400935 

411 

168921 

20273135 

459 

210681 

21-424285 

412 

169744 

20-297783 

460 

211600 

21-447611 

413 

170569 

20-322401 

461 

212521 

21-470911 

414 

171396 

20-346990 

462 

213444 

21-494185 

415 

172225 

20-371549 

463 

214369 

21-517435 

416 

173056 

20-396078 

464 

215296 

21-540659 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     175 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

465 

216225 

21-563859 

513 

263169 

22-649503 

466 

217156 

21-587033 

514 

264196 

22-671568 

467 

218089 

21-610183 

515 

265225 

22-693611 

468 

219024 

21-633308 

516 

266256 

22-715633 

469 

219961 

21-656408 

517 

267289 

22-737634 

470 

220900 

21-679483 

518 

268324 

22-759613 

471 

221841 

21-702534 

519 

269361 

22-781572 

472 

222784 

21-725561 

520 

270400 

22-803509 

473 

223729 

21-748563 

521 

271441 

22-825424 

474 

224676 

21-771541 

522 

272484 

22-847319 

475 

225625 

21-794495 

523 

273529 

22-869193 

476 

226576 

21-817424 

524 

274576 

22-891046 

477 

227529 

21-840330 

525 

275625 

22-912879 

478 

228484 

21-863211 

526 

276676 

22-934690 

479 

229441 

21-886069 

527 

277729 

22-956481 

480 

230400 

21-908902 

528 

278784 

22-978251 

481 

231361 

21-931712 

529 

279841 

23-000000 

482 

232324 

21-954498 

530 

280900 

23-021729 

483 

233289 

21-977261 

531 

281961 

23-043437 

484 

234256 

22-000000 

532 

283024 

23-065125 

485 

235225 

22-022716 

533 

284089 

23-086793 

486 

236196 

22-045408 

534 

285156 

23-108440 

487 

237169 

22-068077 

535 

286225 

23-130067 

488 

238144 

22090722 

536 

287296 

23-151674 

489 

239121 

22-113344 

537 

288369 

23-173261 

490 

240100 

22-135944 

538 

289444 

23-194827 

491 

241081 

22-158520 

539 

290521 

23-216374 

492 

242064 

22-181073 

540 

291600 

23-237900 

493 

243049 

22-203603 

541 

292681 

23-259407 

494 

244036 

22-226111 

542 

293764 

23-280894 

495 

245025 

22-248596 

543 

294849 

23-302360 

496 

246016 

22-271058 

544 

295936 

23-323808 

497 

247009 

22-293497 

545 

297025 

23-345235 

498 

248004 

22-315914 

546 

298116 

23-366643 

499 

249001 

22-338308 

547 

299209 

23-288031 

500 

250000 

22-360680 

548 

300304 

23-409400 

501 

251001 

22-383029 

549 

301401 

23-430749 

502 

252004 

22-405357 

550 

302500 

23-452079 

503 

253009 

22-427662 

551 

303601 

23-473389 

504 

254016 

22-449944 

552 

304704 

23-494680 

505 

255025 

22-472205 

553 

305809 

23-515952 

506 

256036 

22-494444 

554 

306916 

23-537205 

507 

257049 

22-516661 

555 

308025 

23-558438 

508 

258064 

22-538855 

556 

309136 

23-579652 

509 

259081 

22-561028 

557 

310249 

23-600847 

510 

260100 

22-583180 

558 

311364 

23-622024 

511 

261121 

22-605309 

559 

312481 

23-643181 

512 

262144 

22-627417 

560 

313600 

23664319 

176     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

561 

314721 

23-685439 

609 

370881 

24-677925 

562 

315844 

23-706539 

610 

372100 

24-698178 

563 

316969 

23-727621 

611 

373321 

'24-718414 

564 

318096 

23-748684 

612 

374544 

24-738634 

565 

319225 

23-769729 

613 

375769 

24-758837 

566 

320356 

23-790755 

614 

376996 

24-779023 

567 

321489 

23-811762 

615 

378225 

24-799194 

568 

322624 

23-832751 

616 

379456 

24-819347 

560 

323761 

23-853721 

617 

380689 

24-839485 

570 

324900 

23-874673 

618 

381924 

24-859606 

571 

326041 

23-895606 

619 

383161 

24-879711 

572 

327184 

23-916522 

620 

384400 

24-899799 

573 

328329 

23-937418 

621 

385641 

24-919872 

574 

329476 

23-958297 

622 

386884 

24-939928 

575 

330625 

23-979158 

623 

388129 

24-959968 

576 

331776 

24-000000 

624 

389376 

24-979992 

577 

332929 

24-020824 

625 

390625 

25-000000 

578 

334084 

24-041631 

626 

391876 

25019Q92 

579 

335241 

24-062419 

627 

393129 

25-039968 

580 

336400 

24-083189 

628 

394384 

25-059928 

581 

337561 

24-103942 

629 

395641 

25-079872 

582 

338724 

24-124676 

630 

396900 

25-099801 

583 

339889 

24-145393 

631 

398161 

25-119713 

584 

341056 

24-166092 

632 

399424 

25-139610 

585 

342225 

24-186773 

633 

400689 

25-159491 

586 

343396 

24-207437 

634 

401956 

25-179357 

587 

344569 

24-228083 

635 

403225 

25-199206 

588 

345744 

24-248711 

636 

404496 

25-219040 

589 

346921 

24-269322 

637 

405769 

25-238859 

590 

348100 

24-289916 

638 

407044 

25-258662 

591 

349281 

24-310492 

639 

408321 

25-278449 

592 

350464 

24-331050 

640 

409600 

25-298221 

593 

351649 

24-351591 

641 

410881 

25-317978 

594 

352836 

24-372115 

642 

412164 

25-337719 

595 

354025 

24-392622 

643 

413449 

25-357445 

596 

355216 

24413111 

644 

414736 

25-377155 

597 

356409 

24-433583 

645 

416025 

25-396850 

598 

357604 

24-454039 

646 

417316 

25-416530 

599 

358801 

24-474477 

647 

418609 

25-436195 

600 

360000 

24-494897 

648 

419904 

25-455844 

601 

361201 

24515301 

649 

421201 

25475478 

602 

362404 

24-535688 

650 

422500 

25-495098 

603 

363609 

24-556058 

651 

423801 

25-514702 

604 

364816 

24-576412 

652 

425104 

25-534291 

605 

366025 

24-596748 

653 

426409 

25-553865 

606 

367236 

24-617067 

654 

427716 

25573424 

607 

368449 

24637370 

655 

429025 

25-592968 

608 

369664 

24-657656 

656 

430336 

25-612497 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     177 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

657 

431(549 

25-632011 

705 

497025 

26-551836 

658 

432964 

25-651511 

706 

498436 

26-570661 

659 

434281 

25-670995 

707 

499849 

26-589472 

660 

435600 

25-690465 

708 

501264 

26-608269 

661 

436921 

25-709920 

709 

502681 

26-627054 

662 

438244 

25-729361 

710 

504100 

26-645825 

663 

439569 

25-748786 

711 

505521 

26-664583 

664 

440896 

25-768198 

712 

506944 

26-683328 

665 

442225 

25-787594 

713 

508369 

26-702060 

666 

443556 

25-806976 

714 

509796 

26-720778 

667 

444889 

25-82634B 

715 

511225 

26-739484 

668 

446224 

25-84569(5 

716 

512656 

26-758176 

669 

447561 

25-865034 

717 

514089 

2(5-776856 

670 

448900 

25-884358 

718 

515524 

26-795522 

671 

45024; 

25-903668 

719 

516961 

26-814175 

672 

451584 

25-922963 

720 

518400 

26-832816 

673 

452929 

25-942244 

721 

519841 

26-851443 

674 

454276 

25-916510 

722 

521284 

26-870058 

675 

455625 

25-980762 

723 

522729 

26-888659 

676 

456976 

26-000000 

724 

524176 

26-907248 

677 

458329 

26019224 

725 

525625 

26-925824 

678 

459684 

26-038433 

726 

527076 

26-944387 

679 

461041 

26-057628 

727 

528529 

26-962938 

680 

462400 

26-076810 

728 

529984 

26-981475 

681 

463761 

26-095977 

729 

531441 

27-000000 

682 

465124 

26-115130 

730 

532900 

27-018512 

683 

466489 

26-134269 

731 

534361 

27-037012 

684 

467856 

26-153394 

732 

535824 

27-055499 

685 

469225 

26-172505 

733 

537289 

27-073973 

686 

470596 

26-191602 

734 

538756 

27-092434 

687 

471969 

26-210685 

735 

540225 

27-110883 

688 

473344 

26-229754 

736 

541696 

27-129320 

689 

474721 

26-248810 

737 

543169 

27-147744 

690 

476100 

26-267851 

738 

544644 

27-166155 

691 

477481 

26-286879 

739 

546121 

27-184554 

692 

478864 

26-305803 

740 

547600 

27-202941 

693 

480249 

26-324893 

741 

549081 

27-221315 

694 

481636 

26-343880 

742 

550564 

27239677 

695 

483025 

26-362853 

743 

552049 

27-258026 

696 

484416 

26-381812 

744 

553536 

27-276363 

697 

485809 

26-400758 

745 

555025 

27-294688 

698 

487204 

26419690 

746 

556516 

27-313001 

699 

488601 

26-438608 

747 

558009 

27-331301 

700 

490000 

26-457513 

748 

559504 

27-349589 

701 

491401 

26-476405 

749 

561001 

27-367864 

702 

492804 

26-495283 

750 

562500 

27-386128 

703 

494209 

26-514147 

751 

564001 

27-404379 

704 

495616 

26-532998 

752 

565504 

27-422618 

178     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

753 

567009 

27-440846 

801 

041001 

28-301943 

754 

568516 

27-459060 

802 

043204 

28-319005 

755 

570025 

27-477203 

803 

044809 

28-337255 

756 

571536 

27-495454 

804 

040410 

28-354894 

757 

573049 

27-513033 

805 

048025 

28-372522 

758 

574564 

27-531800 

800 

049030 

28-390139 

759 

570081 

27-549955 

807 

051249 

28-407745 

700 

577000 

27-508098 

808 

052864 

28-425341 

761 

579121 

27-580228 

809 

054481 

28-442925 

702 

580044 

27-004348 

810 

050100 

28-400499 

70S 

582109 

27-022455 

811 

057721 

28-478002 

764 

583090 

27-040550 

812 

059344 

28-495014 

765 

585225 

27-058033 

813 

060969 

28-513155 

766 

586756 

27-070705 

814 

662596 

28-530085 

767 

588289 

27-094705 

815 

604225 

28-548205 

768 

589824 

27-712813 

810 

GG585G 

28-505714 

769 

591361 

27-730849 

817 

007489 

28-583212 

770 

592900 

27-748874 

818 

009124 

28-000099 

771 

594441 

27-700887 

819 

070701 

28-018170 

772 

595984 

27-784888 

820 

072400 

28-035042 

773 

597529 

27-802878 

821 

074041 

28-053098 

774 

599076 

27-820856 

822 

075084 

28-070542 

775 

600625 

27-838822 

823 

677329 

28-087977 

776 

602176 

27-856777 

824 

678970 

28-705400 

777 

603729 

27-874720 

825 

080025 

28-722813 

778 

(505284 

27-892651 

820 

082270 

28-740216 

779 

606841 

27-910572 

827 

083929 

28-757608 

780 

608400 

27-928480 

828 

685584 

28-774989 

781 

609961 

27-946377 

829 

687241 

28-792360 

782 

611524 

27-964263 

830 

688900 

28-809721 

783 

613089 

27-982137 

831 

090501 

28-827071 

784 

614656 

28-000000 

832 

092224 

28-844410 

785 

616225 

28-017852 

833 

093889 

28-861739 

786 

617796 

28-035692 

834 

095550 

28-879058 

787 

619369 

28-053520 

835 

697225 

28-890307 

788 

020944 

28-071338 

830 

098890 

28-913005 

789 

022521 

28-089144 

837 

700509 

28-930952 

790 

024100 

28-106939 

838 

702244 

28-948230 

791 

025081 

28-124722 

839 

703921 

28-905497 

792 

027204 

28-142495 

840 

705000 

28-982754 

793 

028849 

28-160256 

841 

707281 

29-000000 

794 

030430 

28-178006 

842 

708904 

29017236 

795 

032025 

28-195744 

843 

710049 

29-034462 

796 

633616 

28-213472 

844 

712330 

29-051678 

797 

635209 

28-231188 

845 

714025 

29-068884 

798 

636804 

28-248894 

840 

715710 

29-086079 

Y99 

638401 

28-200588 

847 

717409 

29-103264 

800 

640000 

28-284271 

848 

719104 

29-120440 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     179 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

849 

720801 

29-137605 

897 

804609 

29-949958 

850 

722500 

29-154760 

898 

806404 

29-966648 

851 

724201 

29-171904 

899 

808201 

29-983329 

852 

725904 

29-189039 

900 

810000 

30-000000 

853 

727609 

29-206164 

901 

811801 

30-016662 

854 

729316 

29-223278 

902 

813604 

30-033315 

855 

731025 

29-240383 

903 

815409 

30-049958 

856 

732736 

29-257478 

904 

817216 

30-066593 

857 

734449 

29-274562 

905 

819025 

30083218 

858 

736164 

29-291637 

906 

820836 

30-099834 

859 

737881 

29-308702 

907 

822649 

30-116441 

860 

739600 

29-325757 

908 

824464 

30-133038 

861 

741321 

29-342802 

909 

826281 

30-149627 

862 

743044 

29-359837 

910 

828100 

30-163206 

863 

744769 

29-376862 

911 

829921 

30-182777 

864 

746496 

29-393877 

912 

831744 

30-199338 

865 

748225 

29-410882 

913 

833569 

30-215890 

866 

749956 

29-427878 

914 

835396 

30-232433 

867 

751689 

29-444864 

915 

837225 

30-248967 

868 

753424 

29-461840 

916 

839056 

30-265492 

869 

755161 

29-478806 

917 

840889 

30-282008 

870 

756900 

29-495762 

918 

842724 

30-298515 

871 

758641 

29-512709 

919 

844561 

30-315013 

872 

760384 

29-529646 

920 

846400 

30-331502 

873 

762129 

29-546573 

921 

848241 

30-347982 

874 

763876 

29-563491 

922 

850084 

30-364453 

875 

765625 

29-580399 

923 

851929 

30-380915 

876 

767376 

29-597297 

924 

853776 

30-397368 

877 

769129 

29-614186 

925 

855625 

30-413813 

878 

770884 

29-631065 

926 

857476 

30-430248 

879 

772641 

29-647934 

927 

859329 

30-446675 

880 

774400 

29-664794 

928 

861184 

30-463092 

881 

776161 

29-681644 

929 

863041 

30-479501 

882 

777924 

29-698485 

930 

864900 

30-495901 

883 

779689 

29-715316 

931 

866761 

30-512293 

884 

781456 

29-732138 

932 

868624 

30-528675 

885 

783225 

29-748950 

933 

870489 

30-545049 

886 

784996 

29-765752 

934 

872356 

30-561414 

887 

786769 

29-782545 

935 

874225 

30-577770 

888 

788544 

29-799329 

936 

876096 

30-594117 

889 

790321 

29-816103 

937 

877969 

30-610456 

890 

792100 

29-832868 

938 

879844 

30-626786 

891 

793881 

29-849623 

939 

881721 

30-643107 

892 

795664 

29-866369 

940 

883600 

30-659419 

893 

797449 

29-883106 

941 

885481 

30-675723 

894 

799236 

29-899833 

942 

887364 

30-692019 

895 

801025 

29-916551 

943 

889249 

30-708305 

896 

802816 

29-933259 

944 

891136 

30-724583 

180    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

No. 

Square. 

Square  Root 

945 

893025 

30-740852 

973 

946729 

31-192948 

946 

894916 

30-757113 

974 

948676 

31-208973 

947 

896809 

30-773365 

975 

950625 

31-224990 

948 

898704 

30-789609 

976 

952576 

31-240999 

949 

900601 

30-805844 

977 

954529 

31-256999 

950 

902500 

30-822070 

978 

956484 

31-272992 

951 

904401 

30-838288 

979 

958441 

31-288976 

952 

906304 

30-854497 

980 

960400 

31-304952 

953 

908209 

30-870698 

981 

962361 

31-320920 

954 

910116 

30-886890 

982 

964324 

31-336879 

955 

912025 

30-903074 

983 

966289 

31-352831 

956 

913936 

30-919250 

984 

968256 

31-368774 

957 

915849 

30935417 

985 

970225 

31-384710 

958 

917764 

30-951575 

986 

972196 

31-400637 

959 

919681 

30-967725 

987 

974169 

31-416556 

960 

921600 

30-983867 

988 

976144 

31-432467 

961 

923521 

31-000000 

989 

978121 

31-448370 

962 

925444 

31-016125 

990 

980100 

31-464265 

963 

927369 

31-032241 

991 

982081 

31-480153 

964 

929296 

31-048349 

992 

984064 

31-496032 

965 

931225 

31-064449 

993 

986049 

31-511903 

966 

933156 

31080541 

994 

988036 

31-527766 

967 

935089 

31-096624 

995 

990025 

31-543621 

968 

937024 

31-112698 

996 

992016 

31-559468 

969 

938961 

31-128765 

997 

994009 

31-575307 

970 

940900 

31-144823 

998 

996004 

31-591138 

971 

942841 

31-160873 

999 

998001 

31-606961 

972 

944784 

31-176915 

DECIMALS 

Here  it  might  be  said  that  decimals  are  so  useful  for 
calculations  that  it  is  surprising  that  anyone  should  be  con- 
tent to  go  through  life  without  understanding  them.  The 
tables  in  catalogs  and  handbooks  cannot  be  properly  used 
without  them.  For  ordinary  purposes  they  are  easy.  The 
refinements  of  the  system  are  not  really  necessary  for  con- 
tract work.  Recurring  decimals  need  not  "  recur "  beyond 
two  or  three  figures.  An  ordinary  arithmetic  will  show  how 
to  use  the  system,  and  there  is  no  need  for  those  who  do 
not  want  intellectual  exercise  going  beyond  the  easy  part. 

Ladder.  —  Suppose  you  are  standing  on  the  first  floor  of  a 
building,  and  there  is  a  ladder  going  up  and  another  going 
down  to  the  basement.  The  first  floor  is  regarded  as  the 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     181 

standard  or  dividing  line.  So  with  the  decimal  notation. 
We  go  up  or  down,  increasing  or  decreasing,  or  rather  we 
keep  on  the  level  and  go  to  the  left  from  the  point  to 
increase,  and  to  the  right  from  the  point  to  decrease.  We 
multiply  as  if  there  were  no  point,  and  simply  put  the  point 
in  at  the  right  place  afterwards. 

Example.  —  This  example  is  for  the  encouragement  of  those 
who  have  hitherto  thought  that  there  is  something  mysterious 
about  the  dot.  Suppose  you  find  an  I-beam  listed  at  14.75 
pounds  to  the  foot,  and  19  feet  are  required,  what  is  the 
weight?  We  go  ahead  as  in  plain  multiplication. 

14.75 
19 


13275 
1475 

280.25 

This  means  that  there  are  280  pounds  and  ^  of  a  pound. 
This  is  only  a  quarter  of  a  pound,  and  need  not  be  regarded. 

Method.  —  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  process  is  the  same  as 
ordinary  multiplication.  So  with  addition  and  subtraction. 
If  instead  of  19  we  had  had  1.9,  only  one-tenth  as  much,  there 
would  have  been  three  points  cut  off  in  the  answer,  which 
would  thus  have  been  28.025.  Surely  that  is  simple  enough 
for  anybody. 

Another  Example.  —  Add  213.05  and  1.23.    213.05 

1.23 


214.28 

Subtract   1.23  from  213.05 
1.23 


211.82 

The  theory  is  just  the  dollar  and  cent  one  used  for  something 
else  than  money.  The  dot  is  the  dividing  point  between  the 
whole  numbers  and  the  fractions,  just  as  it  is  between  the 
dollars  and  cents,  or  the  fractions  of  a  dollar. 


182    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


Take  $1,111.11,  for  example,  and  we  know  how  much  this 
is.  Now  call  it  1,111.11  feet  or  pounds,  miles,  or  pints,  or 
anything  else,  and  we  have  the  whole  decimal  trouble  ex- 
plained. 

Divide  $1,111.11  by  8,  suppose,  and  we  get  $138.88.  The 
exact  answer  would  be  $138.88875,  but  no  one  wants  to 
trouble  with  mills  and  further  refinements  for  daily  use,  and 
the  stop  is  made  at  the  cents,  or  two  figures  to  the  right  of 
the  point.  So  with  decimals  used  for  feet,  inches,  pounds, 
pints,  quarts,  or  anything  else.  For  ordinary  use  we  can 
stop  at  two  figures  to  the  right  of  the  dot,  and  get  close 
enough  to  what  we  want  to  "  call  it  square." 

The  foregoing  figures  will  give  a  hint  to  anyone  who  wants 
to  go  further. 

TABLES    OF    AREAS 

Polygons  or  Many-sided  Figures 

Rule.  —  Multiply  the  square  of  the  side  by  the  multiplier 
corresponding  to  the  figure  in  the  following  table:  the  product 
will  be  the  area. 

NAMES 

Equilateral  triangle    . 

Square 

Pentagon  .... 

Hexagon  .... 

Heptagon  .... 

Octagon  .... 

Nonagon  .... 

Decagon  .... 

Undecagon,  .... 

Dodecagon  .... 

Method  of  Measurement.  —  Contractors  have  sometimes  to 
figure  the  areas  of  polygons,  especially  of  octagons.  The 
simplest  method,  if  the  table  is  not  at  hand,  is  to  make  a 
triangle  of  each  side,  multiply  it  by  the  height,  and  take  the 
half.  Practical  builders  know  well  enough  that  there  is  so 
much  waste  in  floors  and  work  made  on  this  shape  that  the 
exact  area  is  not  a  matter  of  so  much  consequence  as  the 
time  required  to  cover  it. 


NO.  OF 

PERPEN- 

MULTI- 

SIDES 

DICULARS 

PLIER 

3 

0.289 

0.433 

4 

0.500 

1.000 

5 

0.688 

1.720 

6 

0.866 

2.598 

.       7 

1.038 

3.634 

8 

1.207 

4.828 

9 

1.373 

6.181 

.      10 

1.539 

7.694 

.      11 

1.703 

9.365 

12 

1.866 

11.196 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     183 

Example.  —  For  an  illustration  of  the  use  of  the  table  let 
us  assume  that  there  is  a  room  or  a  dancing  pavilion  that 
measures  12  feet  on  the  side.  For  the  areas  of  flooring, 
plaster,  and  paint,  the  square  of  12,  or  144,  would  be  multiplied 
by  4.83 — for  there  is  no  use  going  beyond  two  decimals.  This 
would  make  an  exact  area  of  695.52  square  feet,  or  700  as 
a  contractor  would  allow  it.  This  makes  no  allowance  for 
waste  in  lumber  on  the  octagon. 

Towers.  —  For  taking  the  surface  or  solidity  of  towers  the 
following  table  may  be  used.  They  may  be  estimated  by  the 
usual  triangular  rule  of  multiplying  the  base  of  each  side  by 
the  slope  and  dividing  by  two,  and  this  method  is  the  one 
generally  employed. 

TABLE    OF    THE    SURFACES    AND    SOLIDITIES    OF    REGULAR    BODIES 

Rule  1.  To  Find  the  Surface.  —  Multiply  the  square  of  the 
linear  side  by  the  proper  number  in  the  table  under  Surface: 
the  product  will  be  the  area. 

Rule  2.  To  Find  the  Solidity. — Multiply  the  cube  of  the 
linear  side  by  the  proper  number  under  Solidity:  the  product 
will  be  the  solid  content. 

NO.  SURFACE  WHEN       SOLIDITY  WHEN 

OF  FACES       NAME  THE  SIDE  IS  1  THE  SIDE  IS  1 

4  Tetrahedron  .  .  .  1.73  0.118 

6  Hexahedron  .  .  .  6.00  1.000 

8  Octahedron  .  .  .  3.46  0.471 

12  Dodecahedron  .  .  .  20.64  7.663 

AREAS    OF    SEGMENTS    OF    CIRCLES 

The  common  method  is  to  divide  the  segment  into  a  sufficient 
number  of  triangles  and  multiply  the  base  by  half  the  height. 
This  is  close  enough  for  lumber. 

A  rule,  at  least  a  century  old,  to  get  an  approximate  area 
runs  as  follows: 

To  the  chord  add  1£  of  the  chord  of  half  the  segment,  and 
multiply  the  sum  by  f  of  the  height. 

Example.  —  Suppose  we  have  a  segment  of  a  circle  with  a 
chord  30  feet  long  and  a  height  of  five  feet.  The  chord  of 
half  the  segment  is  15  feet,  and  1£  of  this  is  20.  Adding 
20  to  30  equals  50,  which,  multiplied  by  2,  gives  the  area. 


184    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Someone  may  ask,  What  is  a  segment  and  a  chord?  The 
segment  is  the  bow  used  for  arrows,  and  the  chord  is  the 
string  that  connects  the  two  ends. 


DUODECIMAL    MULTIPLICATION 

This  system  is  divided  into  twelfths -instead  of  tenths  as  our 
ordinary  notation  is.  It  is  used  to  compute  the  contents  of 
stones,  etc.  It  is  a  little  more  accurate  than  the  decimal 
system.  But  it  is  not  so  popular  as  it  used  to  be.  Many 
now  turn  the  inches  to  decimals  of  a  foot  and  go  on  in  the 
way  already  explained. 

The  inch  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  12  parts,  and  each 
part  into  12  seconds,  etc. 

Rule.  —  Multiply  each  denomination  of  the  multiplicand  by 
the  feet  of  the  multiplier,  and  place  the  product  under  that 
denomination  of  the  multiplicand  from  which  it  arises,  carry- 
ing at  12.  Then  multiply  by  the  inches  of  the  multiplier, 
and  set  each  product  a  denomination  farther  towards  the  right 
hand.  Next  multiply  by  the  parts,  if  any,  and  set  the 
products  a  place  still  farther  to  the  right.  Then  add  the 
products. 

1.     Multiply  9  f.  4  in.  by  3  f.  8  in. 
3       8 


28       0 
6       2 


34       2       8  product. 

2.     Multiply    98  3        by    5     6 

3 148  3         by     8     9 

4 87  6     8  by  11   10 

5 63  4     6  by     8     9     6 ... 

6 55  8     7  by  72     6     3... 


.Ans.  540  4     6 

. . . .    1297  2     3 

. . . .    1036  0  10     8 

. . . .      557  2     0     9 

.    4040  627 


The  feet  in  the  product  are  square  feet,  9  of  which  make 
a  square  yard.  The  inches  in  the  product  are  12th  parts  of  a 
square  foot,  or  each  of  them  is  12  square  inches,  and  the 
parts  are  square  inches.  The  lower  denominations  are  com- 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     185 

monly  expressed  in  fractions  of  a  square  inch:  thus,  8  seconds 
are  £  of  a  square  inch,  9  seconds  are  %,  and  7  seconds 
6  thirds  are  %. 

Example.  —  Suppose   a   stone    14   feet   8   inches   x   2   feet   5 
inches  x  1  foot  4  inches,  what  is  the  cubical  contents? 


14     8 
2     5 


29     4 
614 

35     5     4 
1     4 

35     5     4 
11     9     9     4 

47     3     1     4 

Throwing  aside  the  smaller  figures  as  of  no  practical  account 
the  stone  has  47T%  cubic  feet.  By  the  decimal  system  it  has 
47.21. 

SPECIAL  WEIGHTS 

2x6.  —  This  size  of  timber,  set  at  12-inch  centers  and 
ripped  in  two,  would  cover  an  entire  floor  with  a  lining  of 
ordinary  boarding,  supposing  the  size  to  be  full.  In  yellow 
pine  each  square  foot  would  therefore  weigh  3  pounds. 

2x8.  —  This  joist  would  weigh  1£  as  much  as  a  2x6,  or 
4  pounds  when  set  at  12-inch  centers  on  a  floor. 

2x10.  —  This  size  of  joist,  set  at  12  inches,  weighs  5 
pounds  per  square  foot  of  floor. 

2  x  12.  —  This  size  weighs  6  pounds  for  every  square  foot 
of  floor  on  a  12-inch  center. 

For  16-inch  centers  the  weights  are  cut  down  one-fourth. 

FLOORS 

In  general,  for  floor  loads  all  lumber  may  be  taken, ,  in 
board  measure,  or  one  inch  thick,  at  from  2%  to  3  pounds 


186    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

per  square  fopt.  Oak  and  maple,  if  of  full  thickness,  run  to 
3%  or  so.  The  weights  of  the  various  kinds  of  lumber  are 
found  in  the  "  Estimator." 

Wood  Partitions.  —  A  2"x4"  partition,  16-inch  centers, 
plastered  both  sides,  weighs  22  pounds  to  the  square  foot. 

A  2x6,  as  above,  24  pounds. 

Solid  Partitions.  —  If  these  are  estimated  for  weight  use 
a  basis  of  120  pounds  per  cubic  foot  for  plaster,  and  about 
96  pounds  for  cinder  concrete.  One  manufacturer  gives  only 
60  pounds  for  cinder  concrete,  but  this  is  too  light.  A  par- 
tition, therefore,  2  inches  thick,  which  is  common,  would 
average  20  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  But  the  steel  studs 
should  be  added  if  they  are  of  heavy  design. 

Partitions  4  inches  thick,  of  2  inches  cinder  concrete, 
and  2  inches  plaster,  run  about  32  pounds.  Some  would 
allow  a  little  more. 

Hollow  Tile  Partitions.  —  Each  maker  has  different  styles, 
thicknesses,  and  consequently  weights  of  blocks.  The  follow- 
ing weights  are  average  only.  We  should  remember,  however, 
that  the  government  authorities  at  the  San  Francisco  fire 
wreck  came  to  the  conclusion  that  no  partition  should  be 
used  less  than  6  inches  thick. 


WEIGHT   OF   HOLLOW   TILE   PARTITIONS 

2-inch  3-inch  4-inch  5-inch  6-inch  8-inch 

Semi-porous     12          15          16          18          24        27 

Porous    ....14          17         18         20          26        32 

These  weights  do  not  include  the  thin  coat  of  plaster,  wrhich 
would  be  about  7  pounds  on  each  side. 


HOLLOW  TILE   FIRE-PROOF   FLOORS 

The  weight  of  steel  beams,  plastered  ceiling,  concrete  or  floor- 
ing on  top  is  not  included.  Average  weights  only  are  given. 
The  heavier  ones  are  standard. 


Depth  inches 
6 

Ibs.  to  sq.  ft. 
24  to  27 

7 

26     28 

8 

27     32 

9 

29     36 

10 

33     38 

12 

37     44 

15 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     187 

SIDE  CONSTBUCTION  END   CONSTRUCTION 

Ibs.  to  sq.  ft. 
20  to  25 
22  26 
24  30 
26  34 
28  36 
30  40 
37  50 

Hoof  Blocks,  20  to  22  pounds. 

Ceiling  Blocks,  12  to  20  pounds. 

Wall  Furring,  9  to  10  pounds. 

The  Herculean  Arch,  Maurer's,  weighs,  for  hollow  tile 
alone,  8-inch,  33  pounds;  10-inch,  42;  12-inch,  51. 

Concrete  Floors.  —  The  weight  of  these  is  easily  enough 
obtained  at  140  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot  for  stone  or  gravel 
concrete,  and  90  to  96  pounds  for  cinder. 

Plaster.  —  On  some  terra  cotta  ceilings  the  plaster  does  not 
weigh  more  than  5  or  6  pounds  to  the  square  foot;  on  others 
it  may  run  to  10.  For  ordinary  wood  lath  and  plaster  9 
pounds  is  about  right.  This  is  for  one  side  only.  For  metal 
lath,  allow  10  pounds. 

Ceilings.  —  Made  of  wood  they  weigh  from  2  to  2%  pounds 
per  square  foot;  of  corrugated  iron,  1  pound;  of  stamped  gal- 
vanized iron,  2  pounds. 

Terra  Cotta.  —  When  solid  allow  120  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
In  shapes,  from  60  to  90. 

Hoofs.  —  Instead  of  figuring  out  the  weights  in  detail,  allow 
from  40  to  50  pounds  per  square  foot  on  roofs  of  flat  pitch,  to 
include  everything.  Wind  pressure  is  not  regarded  on  small 
buildings. 

If  desired,  the  weights  can  be  easily  obtained  from  the 
foregoing  lists.  Lumber  weighs  the  same  on  a  roof  as  on  a 
floor. 

Gravel  alone,  4  to  4%  pounds  per  square  foot. 

Composition  Roofs  complete,  5y2  to  6y2  pounds  per  square 
foot. 

Patent  roofs  from  30  to  100  pounds  to  the  square. 

Shingles  not  quite  3  pounds  to  the  square  foot. 

Shingle  tile,  9  to  10  pounds  to  square  foot. 


188    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Average  Tile,  7ya  to  8y2  pounds  to  the  square  foot. 
Heavy  Tile,  18  pounds  to  square  foot. 
Slate,  6  to  9  pounds  to  square  foot. 

The  cost  of  labor  per  square  on  all  these  roofs  is  given  in 
the  "Estimator." 

WEIGHT  OF  VAEIOUS  BUILDING  MATERIALS  PER  CUBIC  FOOT 

Pounds  Pounds 

Brickwork,  pressed   150      Steel 490 

fire    137      Lead 711 

ordinary  112  to  120      Rubble   154 

"         soft,    salmon...    100      Ordinary  earth 80  to  90 

Sandstone    151  to  170      Clay   100 

Concrete,  stone  .  .    140  to  150  Sand,  dry  or  wet.      95  to  140 

"        cinder   95      Gravel    110 

"        broken  brick ...    125      Slate    175 

Granite 165  to  170  White  marble  ...    165  to  170 

Iron,  cast 450 

"     wrought  ...   480  to  485 

The  following  table  is  from  one  of  Mr.  Richey's  handbooks, 
listed  in  another  chapter: 

APPROXIMATE  WEIGHT  OF  VARIOUS   ROOF  COVERINGS 

Weight  in  Pounds 

Material  per  Square  of 

Roof 

Yellow  pine  (Northern)  sheathing  1  inch  thick 300 

"  (Southern)  400 

Spruce  200 

Chestnut  or  maple  400 

Ash  or  oak  500 

Shingles,  pine  200 

Slate  i/4  inch  thick  900 

Sheet  iron  TV  inch  thick  300 

"  TV  inch  "  and  laths  500 

Iron,  corrugated  100  to  375 

"  galvanized,  flat  100  to  350 

Tin 70  to  125 

Felt  and  asphalt  100 

"     "    gravel    800  to  1000 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     189 

Skylights,  glass,  T%  inch  to  ya  inch  thick 250  to     700 

Sheet  lead  500  to  800 

Copper     80  to  125 

Zinc    100  to  200 

Tiles,  flat    1500  to  2000 

"         "     with   mortar    2000  to  3000 

pan     1000 

The  Northwestern  Expanded  Metal  Company  gives  the  fol- 
lowing table  of  weights  to  go  with  its  slabs  of  reinforced 
concrete. 

MATERIALS   USED   FOE  FLOORS    AND   ROOFS — WEIGHTS   PER   SQ.    FT. 

When  slabs  are  covered  with  any  of  the  following  materials 
the  weight  is  considered  as  forming  part  of  the  superimposed 
safe  load. 

Floors 
Materials  Weight  in  Ibs.  per  eq.  ft. 

%",  single  thickness  flooring,  wood    3.00 

2"x4"    spruce    sleepers    16"    ctrs.    and    2"    dry    cinder 

concrete    filling    8.50 

Asbestone  flooring  i/2"  thick   3.50 

Rubber    tiling    1.00  to  3.00 

Tiling     3.00  to  8.00 

Ceilings 

%"  wood  ceiling   2.50 

Corrugated  iron 1.00 

Stamped  steel 2.00 

Metal  lath  and  plaster  10.00 

6"   hollow  tile    23.00 

8"         "         "       28.00 

Plastering    5.00 

Roofs 

Common  shingles 2.50 

18"   shingles    3.00 

Slate,  T3g"  thick   7.25 

"       1/4"      "       ' 9.60 

Plain  tile  or  clay  shingle 11.00  to  14.00 


190    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Ludowici  tile    8.00 

Copper  sheets   1.50 

Tin,  including  one  thickness  of  felt 1.00 

Five-ply  felt  and  gravel    6.00 

Four  "        "       "        "        5.50 

Three  "  ready  roofing   1.00 

Skylights  with  galvanized  iron  frame   5.00 

Sheathing,  1"  thick,  Pine  or  Hemlock  3.00 

Yellow  Pine   4.00 

2"  book  tile    12.00 

3"     "        "      20.00 

21/2  solid  tile 16.00 

WAGON  LOADS 

"A  team  goes  about  three  miles  an  hour  with  a  loaded  wagon, 
and  four  with  an  empty." 

The  average  load  all  over  the  country  with  a  double  team 
is  4,000  pounds.  On  a  paved  street  a  heavier  load  can  be 
estimated  on.  For  sand,  stone,  earth,  and  such  material  a 
load  is  usually  about  one  cubic  yard.  On  good  roads  side- 
boards are  put  on  the  wagons,  and  about  a  yard  and  a  half 
hauled. 

Sewer  Pipe. — A  load  is  usually  about  2,000  Ibs.  of  standard 
pipe  and  2,200  of  double  strength.  The  lengths  are  2,  2-6,  and 
3  feet.  The  following  table  is  from  "  The  Business  of  Con- 
tracting," by  McCul lough. 

A  LOAD  OF  SEWEB  PIPE 


Size 
inches 

5 

Number 
pieces 

80 

Size                Number 
inches                pieces 

16                     14 

6 

63 

18 

12 

8 

44 

20 

9 

9 

36 

21  and  22 

8 

10 

29 

24 

7 

12 

23 

27 

5 

14 

19 

30 

4 

15 

16 

33  and  36 

3 

Load  of  cement,   10  barrels;   load  of  brick,   1000;    load  of 
lumber,  4,000  to  5,000  pounds. 
There  are  7%  barrels  to  the  cubic  yard. 


CHAPTER  II 
FOUNDATIONS 

Risk.  —  The  risky  part  of  a  building  is  the  foundation.  If 
that  sinks  nothing  is  safe.  A  few  plain  instructions  are  given 
in  this  chapter  for  the  use  of  the  contractor-constructor. 

Limit.  —  It  is  not  wise  for  the  ordinary  builder  to  attempt 
to  design  a  sky-scraper,  a  pyramid,  or  a  reinforced  concrete 
building  without  help  from  the  experts.  It  is  best  to  leave 
some  work  to  the  regulars.  When  even  they  fail  on  reinforced 
structures,  quicksand  soils,  and  have  to  stand  back  and  look 
at  the  wreckage,  it  is  better  that  the  builder-architect  should 
be  modest. 

Special  Foundations.  —  Tanks  and  such  installations  often 
require  foundations  running  clear  down  to  the  basement  foot- 
ings. The  weight  is  thus  kept  off  the  main  walls. 

The  Underwriters'  Code  calls  for  iron  or  steel  beams  for 
tanks  carrying  more  than  500  gallons.  They  must  rest  on 
masonry  or  steel  supports,  and  must  not  be  placed  near  a  stair 
unless  it  is  enclosed  with  brick  walls  strong  enough  to  support 
the  weight.  If  a  wood  cover  is  used  on  the  tank  it  must  be 
protected  with  tin. 

BEARING   POWER   OF   SOILS    IN   TONS    OF   2,000   POUNDS    TO    SQ.    FT. 

Quicksand  and  marshy  soil    y2  to  1 

Good  dry  sand  in  natural  bed   2       to  3 

Good  dry  sand  well  packed  4       to  5 

Gravel  and  coarse  sand  well  packed    8       to  9 

Dry  clay  15  feet  or  more  thick 4      to  5 

Soft  wet  clay  1 

Clay  and  sand    T% 

Best  solid  natural  earth   3y2  to    4 

Rock  broken  or  partly  disintegrated 5       to  25 

Solid  bed  rock 100 

191 


192     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  Chicago  building  ordinance,  1905,  allows  for  clay  at 
least  15  feet  thick,  3,500  pounds  to  square  foot;  dry  sand, 
4,000;  mixed  clay  and  sand,  3,000. 

Almost  all  the  great  Chicago  buildings  have  settled.  The 
main  thing  is  to  have  an  equal  settlement. 

The  Building  Code  recommended  by  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters  has  the  following  allowances  in  tons  per 
square  foot: 

Soft  clay   1 

Ordinary  clay  and  sand  together,  in  layers  wet  and  springy  2 

Loam,  clay,  or  fine  sand,  firm  and  dry 3 

Very  firm  coarse  sand,  stiff  gravel,  or  hard  clay 4 

The  following  table,  published  by  the  Ransome  Company, 
forms  an  interesting  and  useful  comparison: 

BEARING  POWER  OF  SOILS 

Bearing  Power  in 
Kind  of  Material  Tons  per  gq.  ft. 

Min.  Max. 

Rock — the  hardest — in  thick  layers  of  native  bed  200 

Rock  equal  to  best  ashlar  masonry 25  30 

Rock  equal  to  best  brick  masonry    15  20 

Rock  equal  to  poor  brick  masonry 5  10 

Clay  on  thick  beds,  always  dry   4  C 

Clay  on  thick  beds,  moderately  dry 2  4 

Clay,  soft    1  2 

Gravel  and  coarse  sand,  well  compacted 8  10 

Sand,  compacted  and  well  cemented   4  6 

Sand,  clean,  dry 2  4 

Quicksand,  alluvial  soils,  etc 0.5  1 

COMPUTING   OF   LOADS 

For  buildings  of  more  than  three  stories  the  Underwriters 
recommend  the  following  manner  of  "  weighing "  the  total 
building. 

For  warehouses  and  factories  full  dead  and  live  load. 

In  stores  and  light  manufacturing  buildings,  churches, 
schoolhouses,  and  places  of  assembly,  full  dead  load  and  75  per 
cent,  of  live  load. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     193 

In  office  buildings,  hotels,  dwellings,  apartment  and  tenement 
houses,  full  dead  load  and  60  per  cent,  of  live  load. 
The  foundations  should  be  loaded  uniformly. 


TESTING  THE  SOIL 

Variations.  —  Some  cities  specify  a  load  of  not  more  than 
40  pounds  to  the  square  foot,  and  others  allow  70.  When 
there  is  such  a  difference  among  the  experts  we  need  not  be 
so  very  nice  in  our  calculations  for  an  ordinary  dwelling. 

Weight.  —  When  figured  out  in  detail  an  ordinary  frame 
house,  including  the  weight  of  joists,  floors,  and  plaster,  at 
70  pounds  to  the  square  foot,  the  pressure  is  only  about  1% 
tons  to  the  square  foot  of  soil,  allowing  the  usual  offsets  for 
brick  or  masonry. 

As  good  soils  carry  more  than  twice  as  much,  there  is  no 
danger  of  settlement,  so  far  as  the  bearing  is  concerned.  The 
earth  will  hold  if  the  mortar  will. 

This  is  for  70  pounds;  if  only  40  are  allowed  the  security  is 
even  greater,  so  far  as  figures  go. 

Brick  Weights.  —  A  change  to  brick  walls  makes  a  weight 
of  only  1%  tons.  For  ordinary  dwellings,  or  two-story  and 
basement  houses,  then,  the  usual  footings  are  ample  without 
testing  on  reasonable  soil.  Tradesmen  have  found  out  this 
long  ago.  The  footings  would  have  been  increased  had  they 
been  too  narrow. 

Manner  of  Testing.  —  The  test  should  be  made  at  the  re- 
quired depth,  and  not  on  the  surface.  Take  a  timber  12"  x  12" 
or  a  smaller  one  with  a  plank  of  that  area  nailed  on  the 
bottom.  Stand  it  on  end  and  build  a  platform  large  enough 
to  hold  the  material  to  be  used  for  weight.  This  will  give 
a  testing  surface  of  1  square  foot  when  set  upright.  Pig  iron 
is  best  for  a  load,  but  may  not  be  obtainable;  stone  or  brick 
are  good;  coal  may  be  made  to  serve;  sacks  of  cement  or 
grain  will  do. 

Level.  —  Take  the  exact  level  before  testing;  this  may  be 
done  with  an  ordinary  level  and  straight-edge,  for  contractors 
do  not  generally  have  a  builder's  level.  They  cost  about  $40. 

Watch  at  what  weight  the  timber  settles,  and  allow  not 
more  than  half  for  the  permanent  load.  If  the  settlement  is 
made  at  3  tons,  the  unit  should  be  1,500  pounds.  The  ground 


194    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

below  the  12"  x  12"  should  be  cleared  off  before  testing.     The 
platform  may  be  held  in  place  by  guy  ropes. 


WEIGHT   OF  A  FRAME   HOUSE 

With  ordinary  soils  it  is  thus  never  necessary  to  figure  out 
the  weight  of  a  dwelling.  In  case  it  has  to  be  done  for  a  very 
soft  soil,  the  method  is  easy.  Get  the  area  of  each  floor 
over  the  walls  in  square  feet  and  multiply  it  by  not  more  than 
70  pounds;  add  the  area  of  only  that  part  of  the  attic  floor 
used,  and  not  in  the  angle  below  the  rafters,  and  allow  40 
pounds  for  that  per  square  foot;  put  the  roof  at  10  pounds  per 
square  foot  of  surface;  add  the  side  brick  foundation  walls 
at  80  pounds  to  the  square  foot;  then  the  outside  walls  above 
at  20  pounds;  and  finally  the  inside  partitions  at  20  pounds 
also. 

Taken  in  this  way,  there  is  a  weight  of  140  tons  on  a  house 
26'x32'.  But  the  central  girder  would  take  off  about  20 
tons,  thus  leaving  120  tons,  or  60  tons  on  each  side  wall,  on  a 
distance  of  32  feet. 

The  end  walls  have  nothing  but  their  own  weight  to  carry, 
and  theoretically  the  footing  for  them  should  be  narrower,  but 
it  is  usually  made  of  the  same  width. 

We  now  see  how  to  take  the  weight  of  another  building,  and 
go  into  it  more  in  detail.  The  method  can  then  be  applied  to 
any  structure. 

WEIGHT  OF  A  PLAIN  BUSINESS  BUILDING 

Example.  —  Let  us  take  a  business  building  40' x  100'  as  an 
illustration.  Assume  that  it  is  three  stories  and  basement 
high,  with  basement  9  feet  in  the  clear,  first  story  12,  second 
and  third  stories  11.  The  thickness  of  the  walls  would  be 
17,  17,  13,  13-inch.  A  row  of  cast  iron  columns  would  go 
through  the  center  of  the  building. 

The  openings  would  be  of  the  usual  type,  and  would  not  be 
deducted  in  calculating  the  weights.  Where  the  bearing 
power  of  the  soil  may  be  miscalculated  20  to  30  per  cent., 
there  is  no  use  in  being  finical  about  the  difference  in  weight 
between  brickwork  and  glass  or  doors.  In  large  machine 
shops,  foundries,  and  other  manufacturing  buildings  where 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     195 

the  openings  take  up  from  one-third  to  one-half  the  area  of 
the  walls,  the  difference  has  to  be  taken  into  account. 

We  shall  assume  that  the  soil  will  support  three  tons  to  the 
square  foot  and  that  the  floor  load  is  set  at  125  pounds. 
This  will  include  the  weight  of  the  material  in  the  floor  itself — 
joists,  plaster,  etc. 

Summary.  —  We  have  then  the  weights  as  follows: 

Basement  concrete  footings  below  floor  line,  100'  x  12" 

x  32":=267  cubic  feet  at  145  pounds 38,715 

Basement  brick  walls  to  top  of  first  story  floor  joists, 

100' x  10'6"xl7"=:l,050  square  feet  at  160  pounds  168,000 
First  story  walls  to  top  of  second  floor  joists,  100' x 

13'6"  x  17",  1,350  square  feet  at  160  pounds 216,000 

Second  story  walls  to  top  of  third  floor  joists,  100'  x 

12'6"  x  13",  1,250  square  feet  at  120  pounds 150,000 

Third  story  walls  to  top  of  ceiling  joists,  100' x  11'9" 

x  13",  1,175  square  feet  at  120  pounds 141,000 

Average  from  top  of  ceiling  joists  to  top  of  parapet 

wall,  100' x  4' x  9  "=400  square  feet  at  80  pounds..  32,000 
Floor  load  on  first,  second,  and  third  stories,  100'  x 

9'6"  x  125  pounds  x  3  356,250 

Live  load,  15  per  cent,  of  the  floor  load 53,435 

Roof  load,  1,000  square  feet  at  50  pounds 50,000 


1,205,400 

Remarks.  —  To  get  at  the  weight  of  the  concrete,  the  ordi- 
nary extension  of  two-thirds  of  the  height  was  allowed  on  a 
12-inch  base.  That  is,  it  was  assumed  that  a  12-inch  base 
course  of  concrete  was  thick  enough,  and  since  a  17-inch  brick 
wall  went  on  top  of  this,  the  extension  required  would  be 
two-thirds  of  the  12  inches,  or  8  inches.  The  8-inch  extension 
on  each  side  added  to  the  17-inch  wall,  or  as  some  call  it,  the 
16-inch  brick  wall,  gave  the  32-inch  width  for  a  trial  base  in 
order  to  get  about  the  weight. 

We  must  now  see  if  this  is  wide  enough  to  support  the 
foundation  at  three  tons  to  the  square  foot. 

Lineal  Foot  Weight.  —  Dividing  the  total  weight  of  1,205,400 
pounds  by  100  feet,  the  total  length  of  the  side  wall,  we  have 
12,054  pounds  to  the  running  foot.  This  is  practically  a 


196    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

weight  of  six  tons,  so  that  if  the  foundation  was  only  2  feet 
wide  it  would  be  strong  enough.  We  could,  therefore,  reduce 
the  width  of  the  base  so  far  as  strength  goes  by,  say,  4  inches 
to  be  entirely  safe,  leaving  it  2  feet  4  inches  wide,  and  pro- 
portioning the  footings  of  the  interior  columns  on  the  same 
basis  per  square  foot. 

But  if  2  feet  only  is  required  to  carry  the  load,  and  we  make 
the  base  2  feet  4  inches,  it  is  clear  that  the  load  is  less.  How 
much  is  it?  We  have  to  divide  12,054  pounds  by  2£  feet. 
By  the  vulgar  fraction  route  the  answer  is  5,166  pounds. 

Here  is  a  chance  to  make  use  of  the  decimal  notation  alluded 
to  in  another  chapter.  Looking  in  the  table  of  decimal 
equivalents  of  inches  expressed  in  feet,  we  find  that  4  inches 
is  a  recurring  decimal  and  would  go  on  a  mile  long  at 
.333333333.  As  with  dollars  and  cents,  we  do  not  need  to  go 
beyond  the  cents,  or  two  points.  We  have  then  to  divide  a 
weight  of  12,054  pounds  per  lineal  foot  by  2.33  feet  of  a 
width. 

2.33)12,05400(5173 
11,65 


404 
233 

1710 
1631 

790 
699 


There  is  a  difference  of  a  few  pounds  in  the  two  methods. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  two  ciphers  are  added  to  the  12,054 
pounds  before  the  division  begins.  This  is  because  there  are 
two  figures  to  the  right  of  the  dot  in  2.33.  Matters  are  thus 
equalized,  and  we  proceed  as  if  there  were  no  dot  at  all.  No 
more  attention  is  paid  to  it.  In  this  western  country  there 
used  to  be  an  Indian  called  Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horse. 
When  we  see  anyone  balking  at  a  simple  decimal  we  have  to 
think  of  this  Indian. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     197 

But  5,173  pounds  is  too  cumbersome  to  work  with.  We  can 
therefore  reduce  it  to  tons  by  dividing  by  2,000  pounds. 
Work  this  with  the  decimal  system  and  you  will  find  the 
answer  to  be  2.586  tons.  This  is  really  2  tons,  and  586-1000 
of  a  ton.  We  might  as  well  call  it  600-1000  of  a  ton,  as  it 
is  almost  that.  Cutting  off  the  useless  ciphers  we  have  -fG  of 
a  ton,  or  in  decimals  0.6.  The  figure  required  would  thus 
be  2.6  tons  to  the  square  foot.  We  have  to  arrange  the 
foundations  of  the  interior  columns,  rear  and  front  walls  on 
this  basis,  so  that  all  the  building  will  bear  equally  on  the 
soil,  and  if  settlement  occurs  it  will  go  down  in  a  body. 

Practice.  —  It  may  be  said  that  we  could  reduce  the  founda- 
tions to  2  feet  wide  and  still  be  safe,  but  that  would  make 
only  a  4-inch  extension  of  the  footing  beyond  the  face  of  the 
brick,  and  no  matter  how  much  of  a  theorist  an  architect 
may  be,  he  likes  to  see  the  footing  course  run  out  more  than 
that.  Besides,  the  building  laws  of  cities  compel  a  wider 
extension.  It  is  better  to  be  safe  than  sorry.  The  extension 
has  to  be  at  least  6  inches  on  each  side  for  most  cities.  Under 
a  16-inch  wall  this  would  give  a  base  of  2  feet  4  inches,  which 
is  what  we  are  figuring  on.  If  the  soil  carried  only  two  tons 
instead  of  three  it  would  have  to  be  wider. 

Brick  Footings.  —  It  is  thus  seen  that  the  usual  brick 
footings  are  ample  bearing  for  ordinary  buildings.  A  9-inch 
wall  has  a  21-inch  base;  a  13-inch,  a  25-inch;  a  17-inch,  a 
29-inch;  a  21-inch,  a  33-inch;  a  25-inch,  a  37-inch. 

The  Offsets  should  really  be  made  about  iy2  inches  for  a 
single  course,  and  3  inches  for  a  double.  The  first  brick  course 
should  not  be  set  back  more  than  half  the  thickness  of  the 
concrete  base  upon  which  it  rests. 

The  Rear  Walls.  —  Instead  of  taking  the  whole  width  of  the 
building  for  this  weight  we  might  just  take  one  lineal  foot, 
and  thus  use  fewer  figures. 

Concrete,  2.33  cubic  feet  at  145  pounds  338 

Brick  to  top  of  second  story  joists,  24'xl'xl7"x 

160  pounds  3840 

Brickwork  from  top  of  second  story  joists  to  top  of  roof 

joists,  25'  x  1'  x  13"  x  120  pounds 3000 

7178 


198     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

There  is  no  floor  or  roof  load  to  be  considered  on  the  rear 
wall,  unless  where  the  central  girder  comes.  This  calculation 
is  only  for  the  regular  wall  with  a  footing  supposed  to  be 
continuous,  and  not  for  concentrated  piers. 

Supposing  the  rear  footing  were  to  be  made  2  feet  wide,  the 
weight  to  each  square  foot  would  be  only  3,600  pounds,  or 
1.8  tons. 

Theory.  —  We  might  leave  the  side  walls  2  feet  8  inches, 
as  originally  figured  for  weight,  and  cut  the  rear  ones  to 
2  feet  if  the  building  laws  would  allow  us.  This  would  make 
the  weight  on  the  side  2.35  tons,  and  on  the  rear,  1.8.  The 
sides  would  have  to  be  increased  even  more  to  equalize  the 
pressure. 

Practice.  —  As  a  matter  of  fact  most  architects  leave  the 
rear  wall  the  same  as  the  side  ones,  although  the  floor 
weight  does  not  come  on  it  at  all.  The  building  laws  compel 
the  same  thickness  for  brick,  regardless  of  rear  or  side,  bearing 
of  floor  or  not.  The  floor  load  is  always  figured  much  higher 
than  it  ever  weighs,  for  few  floors  are  loaded  all  over  at  one 
time,  and  this  makes  a  factor  of  safety  that  takes  care  of  part 
of  the  difference  of  rear  and  front  walls  as  compared  with 
those  on  the  sides. 

Piers.  —  In  the  center  of  the  rear  wall  the  girder  supporting 
the  floor  has  to  have  a  bearing.  A  specially  wide  foundation 
is  therefore  necessary,  and  the  method  of  figuring  out  this 
is  the  same  as  for  any  pier  in  front,  side,  or  interior.  If  there 
is  a  continuous  wall  where  the  girder  comes,  of  course  the 
footings  are  simply  extended.  Here  we  shall  assume  that 
there  is  an  isolated  pier,  and  that  the  design  of  the  building 
gives  it  a  width,  running  the  long  way  of  the  wall,  of  6  feet. 

PIEB  WEIGHT 

Concrete   (assumed  at  8'  x  3'  x  2')  x  145  pounds 6,960 

Brickwork  to  top  of  second  story  joists,  6'  x  24'  x  160  Ibs.  23,040 
from  top  of  second  story  joists  to  top  of  roof 

joists,  6'  x  25'  x  120  pounds   18,000 

Floor  load,  7'  x  20'  x  3  x  125  pounds 7,500 

Live  load,  15  per  cent,  of  the  floor  load 1,125 

Roof  load,  7'  x  20'  x  50  pounds   7,000 

63,625 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     199 

This  total  load  goes  on  a  base  we  have  supposed  to  be,  in 
order  to  get  about  the  weight,  3'  x  8',  or  24  square  feet.  That 
is  a  weight  of  2,651  pounds  to  square  foot.  But  the  rear  wall 
has  3,600  pounds,  and  therefore  our  assumed  base  is  too  large. 
Dividing  63,625  by  3,600  we  find  that  we  require  only  17.67, 
or  say  18  square  feet.  As  this  pier  carries  a  good  deal  of  the 
load  we  should  increase  the  area  about  10  per  cent,  to  be  safe. 
Suppose  we  allow  20  square  feet  for  a  base.  The  brickwork 
above  is  17"  x  6'.  The  footing  resting  on  the  ground  would  be 
practically  2'9"  x  7'4",  tapered  up  from  a  square  concrete  base 
to  suit  the  brick  above. 

The  pressure  on  this  pier  and  on  the  rear  wall  would  be 
about  equal,  with  the  advantage  in  favor  of  the  girder 
pier. 

There  is  a  certain  amount  of  weight  coming  on  both  sides  of 
the  pier,  with  windows  and  brick  above  and  below  them,  but 
as  each  plan  has  its  own  different  features  of  this  kind  these 
weights  are  not  figured  here,  although  they  must  be  added 
to  the  total  of  an  actual  plan. 

Interior  Piers.  —  In  getting  the  floor  load  for  the  girder 
pier  a  distance  of  14  feet  from  center  to  center  of  columns  and 
wall  bearing  was  assumed,  and  thus  the  allowance  was  7  feet 
back.  The  20  feet  was  10  feet  on  each  side  of  the  center,  or 
reaching  half  way  to  the  walls,  where  it  met  the  other  load 
supported  by  them. 

At  14-foot  centers  each  of  the  interior  columns  has  thus  a 
floor  space  of  14'  x  20'  to  take  care  of,  and  to  get  the  size  of 
the  base  required  we  proceed  as  follows,  after  supposing  that 
the  concrete  base  will  be  about  4'  x  5'  x  2'. 

Concrete,  4'  x  5'  x  2'  x  145  pounds 5,800 

Floor  load,  14'  x  20'  x  3  x  125  pounds 105,000 

Live  load,  15  per  cent 15,750 

Roof  load,  14'  x  20'  x  50  pounds 14,000 

Weight  of  cast  iron  columns  from  basement  to  roof, 
about    3,500 


144,050 

This  is  a  weight  of  72  tons.     At  2.4  tons  to  the  square  foot, 
the  same  as  the  side  walls,  we  require  30  square  feet.    But  it 


200     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

is  clear  that  the  weight  of  concrete  allowed  is  too  small.  With 
the  extra  size  of  base  and  the  tapering  required  we  may  allow 
6  tons  more  to  be  safe.  This  gives  a  total  of  78  tons  to  be 
provided  for.  Dividing  this  by  2.4  we  see  that  the  base  has 
to  have  32.5  or  32y2  square  feet. 

But  now  comes  another  trouble:  I  have  seen  the  floors  of 
buildings  going  up  and  down  like  the  waves  of  a  lake  through 
settlement  of  piers,  and  that  in  buildings  designed  by  good 
architects.  A  pier  is  so  much  more  concentrated  than  a  long 
wall  that  we  must  be  more  careful  with  the  loading.  We  shall 
therefore  increase  the  base  to  6'  x  6',  or  36  square  feet. 

First  of  all,  a  base  of  this  size  would  be  put  down  about 
16  inches  thick;  the  next  layer  would  be  set  back  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  thickness,  say,  10  inches,  making  it  5'2"  x  5'2"  and 
16  inches  thick  also;  the  third  layer  would  be  4'4"  x  4'4"  and 
12  inches  thick;  and  the  top  layer  might  be  3'6"  x  3'6"  x  9", 
ready  for  the  base  plate. 

It  should  be  noted  here,  however,  that  some  architects  set 
back  only  half  the  thickness  of  the  base  below,  instead  of 
two-thirds  as  above.  The  main  thing  is  to  get  the  base  of 
the  right  size,  and  after  allowing  at  least  12  inches  thick  a  set- 
back of  8  inches  to  6  inches  can  be  made  and  the  pier  tapered 
instead  of  being  put  up  layers  as  figured  above.  Concrete 
piers  of  this  kind  usually  are  tapered. 

Front  Piers.  —  These  should  be  figured  out  in  the  same  way. 
With  a  store  front,  for  example,  most  of  the  load  comes  on 
the  center  pier.  Any  special  weights  of  this  kind  must  be 
taken  into  account. 

Unit.  —  In  all  these  calculations  125  pounds  is  supposed  to 
include  the  floor  itself.  This  is  the  weight  usually  given  for 
light  manufacturing  and  light  storage  buildings,  but  in  addi- 
tion, the  weight  of  joists,  flooring,  and  plaster  has  to  be  put 
in  the  total. 

Yet  the  average  floor  load  of  210  office  buildings  in  Boston 
was  found  to  be  only  17  pounds  to  the  square  foot,  and  the 
heaviest  was  34  pounds.  This  was  the  live  or  movable  load, 
and  did  not  include  the  floor  itself.  We  thus  see  that  there  is 
a  safe  margin  with  all  the  loads  allowed  in  a  code  of  the 
average  kind. 

Any  weight  may  be  figured  up  the  same  as  the  125  pound 
one  in  the  foregoing  building. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    201 

Equal  Pressure.  —  The  danger  comes  with  heavy  chimneys, 
vaults,  water  tanks,  and  such  special  installations.  We  have 
all  seen  chimneys  settle  and  crack  the  plaster  through  one 
story  after  another.  The  main  thing  is  to  have  an  equal 
settlement.  Sometimes  piers  in  the  interior  are  made  to  carry 
a  heavier  load  than  the  outside  walls,  so  that  if  the  building 
settles  the  weight  will  press  inward  and  keep  it  together, 
instead  of  outward  and  pull  it  apart,  as  would  be  the  case 
if  the  outside  walls  settled  and  the  inside  piers  did  not. 

So  with  a  block  of  a  couple  of  flats,  for  example,  or  a  business 
building,  like  the  one  we  have  just  considered,  if  there  were 
a  center  wall  instead  of  a  row  of  columns.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  floor  load  comes  from  both  sides  on  such 
a  wall,  and  that  it  has  therefore  twice  as  much  to  take  care  of. 
The  footings  have  to  be  arranged  to  suit.  If  anything,  they 
should  be  given  a  heavier  load  than  the  outside  walls. 

Dead  and  Live  Loads.  —  For  our  purpose  a  dead  load  may 
be  defined  as  the  weight  of  the  permanent,  unchanging  struc- 
ture, and  a  live  load  as  the  weight  of  the  movables  coming 
upon  it.  A  brick  wall  is  thus  a  dead  load,  and  furniture,  a 
movable  safe,  a  machine,  or  a  person,  a  live  load. 

Theory.  —  Many  engineers  say  that  dead  loads  only  should 
be  considered  in  proportioning  footings.  For  an  ordinary  build- 
ing this  is  probably  right.  After  settlement  takes  place  there 
is  not  much  probability  that  the  live  loads  will  disturb  the 
structure  in  any  way.  "  To  get  the  best  results  in  the  way 
of  equal  settlement,  the  foundations  should  be  proportioned 
to  the  dead  load  only,"  say  two  engineers. 

Concentrating  Loads.  —  But  in  such  a  case  as  railroad  shops, 
where  a  120-ton  crane  lifts  an  engine,  sometimes  close  to  one 
end,  and  most  of  the  live  load  is  thrown  on  a  single  column, 
an  allowance  has  to  be  made  to  receive  it.  But  this  is  out  of 
the  ordinary  line  of  construction  dealt  with  here. 

Method.  —  For  buildings  such  as  storage  warehouses,  where 
heavy  loads  are  carried,  "  to  allow  for  the  live  load  the  unit 
bearing  load  should  be  reduced." 

Take,  for  example,  a  soil  carrying  4  tons  per  square  foot 
as  a  maximum,  or  heaviest  load.  Suppose  one  column  receives 
a  dead  load  of  260  tons  and  a  live  load  of  140;  and  another, 
140  and  80.  For  the  first  column  we  require  100  square  feet 
on  a  4-ton  basis.  But  assuming  that  the  dead  load  only  is 


202     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

considered  there  are  260  tons  to  be  divided  by  100,  thus  giving 
only  2.6  tons  to  the  square  foot. 

Setting  aside  the  80  tons  of  live  load  in  the  second  column 
we  have  the  other  load  of  140  left.  Dividing  this  by  2.6 
gives  the  number  of  54  square  feet  required  for  the  base. 

In  other  words,  the  column  or  pier  receiving  the  heaviest 
load  is  taken  as  the  standard,  and  the  size  of  the  footing  based 
upon  this  load  at  4  tons,  or  whatever  it  may  be  to  suit  the 
soil.  Then  the  total  dead  load  is  divided  by  the  number  of 
square  feet  obtained  in  order  to  get  the  unit  figure  for  the 
entire  building,  regardless  of  live  loads. 

One  Ordinance.  —  The  New  York  ordinance  requires  that 
for  stores  and  light  manufacturing  buildings,  schoolhouses, 
churches,  etc.,  the  full  dead  load  and  75  per  cent,  of  the  live 
load  shall  be  taken.  For  office  buildings,  tenements,  hotels, 
etc.,  the  dead  load  and  60  per  cent,  of  the  live  load  is  taken. 
The  unit  pressure  is  obtained  as  above  by  selecting  the 
heaviest  pier  or  column,  getting  the  area  required  for  both 
dead  and  live,  then  dividing  the  dead  by  the  square  feet  in  the 
base,  and  proportioning  all  footings  on  this  figure. 

Average.  —  For  ordinary  dwellings  70  pounds  includes  every- 
thing. Wind  pressure  is  not  considered  under  the  ordinance 
of  New  York  for  any  building  less  than  100  feet  high;  and  it 
need  not  be,  unless  the  building  is  of  an  extremely  narrow 
type. 

For  warehouses  and  stores,  etc.,  Kidder  allows  50  per  cent, 
of  live  load;  but  for  office  buildings  and  hotels  he  adds  15 
pounds  per  square  foot  to  the  dead  load. 

PILE  FOUNDATIONS 

"  Doing  Time."  —  For  six  or  seven  years  I  worked  on  plans 
for  railroad  shops,  mostly  all  set  on  piles.  According  to  the 
fashion  of  such  work  we  usually  made  several  sets  of  drawings 
to  suit  various  temperaments  and  requirements,  until  the 
desired  type  was  finally  decided  on.  I  thus  had  a  chance  of 
spacing  more  piles  than  the  average  architect  runs  across  in  a 
lifetime.  As  a  rule,  railroad  engineers  have  more  to  do 
with  piling  than  architects. 

Load.  —  As  a  rough  and  ready  "  formula "  we  held  to  a 
minimum  distance  of  2  feet  6  inches,  and  a  maximum  of  4 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     203 

feet  on  centers.  The  load  was  usually  17  tons,  but  seldom 
more  than  20.  The  soil  was  so  soft  that  it  had  little  side 
resistance.  In  good  soil,  with  piles  driven  to  rock,  30  tons 
might  have  been  used.  Loads  of  more  than  this  would  be 
carried,  but  for  ordinary  buildings  the  piles  would  have  to 
be  spaced  too  far  apart  to  get  on  enough  of  the  superstructure 
to  make  up  the  load. 

No  grillage  was  used,  but  a  heavy  mass  of  concrete  was 
required  on  top  as  the  distance  from  base  to  grade  ran  from 
8  feet  to  12  feet.  The  piles  were  driven  to  rock. 

In  special  cases  the  center  distance  was  changed.  No  con- 
crete piles  were  used. 

Theories.  —  It  would  be  easy  to  collect  a  small  volume  of 
pile  theories,  but  the  man  for  whom  this  book  is  written,  the 
Average  Contractor,  does  not  require  theories. 

Spacing.  —  In  that  excellent  publication,  "  The  Underwriters' 
Model  Code,"  for  example,  the  rule  is  laid  down  that 
wood  piles  shall  not  be  spaced  more  than  36  inches  on 
centers,  nor  less  than  20  inches.  The  diameter  is  given 
as  5  inches  and  10  inches  for  short  piles,  and  12  inches 
for  long  ones,  at  the  heavy  end.  The  greatest  load  is  20 
tons. 

It  may  be  possible  to  drive  a  pile  at  20-inch  centers  in  some 
soils,  but  in  others  it  could  not  be  done.  Assuming  a  10-inch 
head  that  would  leave  only  10  inches  between  the  piles. 

In  New  York  2  feet  6  inches  is  the  maximum  distance,  and 
the  load  is  20  tons.  Boston  allows  3  feet,  at  most,  between 
centers. 

Water.  —  The  tops  of  wood  piles  have  to  be  cut  off  below 
the  water  line.  Wood  under  water  lasts  for  centuries.  If  not 
kept  below  water  it  rots. 

Concrete  Piles.  —  These  are  much  used  now,  and  especially 
in  places  where  the  water  is  low.  They  can  come  up  clear 
to  grade.  A  load  of  25  tons  per  square  foot  is  allowed,  plus 
3  tons  more  per  square  inch  of  the  longitudinal  steel  rein- 
forcement. Take  as  an  illustration  a  pile  10  inches  in  diame- 
ter. Looking  in  the  table  of  areas  of  circles  we  find  that  this 
pile  would  have  a  surface  of  78.54  square  inches.  A  square 
foot  has  144.  Reducing  the  load  in  proportion  to  the  area  we 
get  close  to  14  tons.  But  an  allowance  of  3  tons  is  made  for 
each  square  inch  of  steel  showing  in  the  end  or  section.  This 


204    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

has  to  be  added,  and  would  vary  according  to  the  load  to  be 
carried. 

Capping.  —  Boston  specifies  a  granite  capping  for  piles; 
Chicago  a  wood  grillage;  but  it  would  seem  that  concrete 
accommodates  itself  better  to  the  requirements  than  any  of 
these  two.  It  goes  down  about  12  inches  over  the  piles  and 
surrounds  them  with  about  10  or  12  inches  in  such  a  way 
that  side  motion  becomes  impossible.  Then  the  older  it  gets, 
up  to  at  least  three  years,  the  harder  it  grows.  If  grillage  is 
used  it  should  be  hardwood,  not  less  than  6  inches  thick. 

Light  Load.  —  In  many  cases,  such  as  the  gables  of  manu- 
facturing buildings,  more  piles  have  to  be  put  in  than  the 
weight  of  the  wall  really  requires.  Take,  for  illustration,  a 
section  of  a  17-inch  gable,  20  feet  long  and  40  feet  high. 
Even  disregarding  the  large  openings  which  usually  come  in 
such  buildings,  the  weight  would  be  only  128,000  pounds  for 
brick;  and  taking  the  concrete  at  6  feet  deep,  and  the  founda- 
tion continuous,  say,  5  feet  wide  by  20  feet  long  by  2  feet  high 
for  base;  and  an  average  of  3  feet  wide  by  20  feet  long  by 
4  feet  high  for  the  upper  part.  This  is  a  total  for  concrete 
of  440  cubic  feet  at  145  pounds  equals  63,800. 

Brick  and  concrete  would  therefore  weigh  less  than  96  tons. 
At  16  tons  to  the  pile,  six  only  would  be  required  so  far  as 
strength  goes.  But  the  piles  have  to  be  set  in  at  least  two 
rows,  and  cannot  be  more  than  4-foot  centers — some  cities,  as 
already  seen,  allow  only  3  feet.  This  would  make  it  necessary 
to  use  10  piles,  and  under  the  Boston  law,  15. 

Staggering.  —  Piles  are  arranged  in  staggered  rows.  That 
is,  if  there  are  two  rows  the  piles  are  not  set  opposite  each 
other,  but  the  pile  in  the  one  row  is  set  opposite  the  center 
of  the  space  in  the  other. 

Post  Foundations.  —  The  first  cottage  I  built  was  set  on  a 
post  foundation.  Many  buildings  are,  especially  in  railroad 
work.  Cuttings  of  pile  heads  are  used  for  supports,  or 
ordinary  timbers. 

The  posts  are  usually  set  about  8  feet  apart,  and  a  6"  x  8"  or 
a  larger  sill  laid  on  top.  As  we  have  seen,  the  load  on  the 
side  walls  of  the  average  two  story  frame  house  is  never  more 
than  ly2  tons  to  the  square  foot,  while  a  base  2' x  2'  on  good 
soil  carries  about  12,  which  is  good  for  a  continuous  founda- 
tion, 8  feet  long,  at  iy2  tons.  A  3' x  3'  base  does  not  cost 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     205 

much  more  than  a  2'  x  2'  one,  and  gives  over  twice  the  bearing 
surface. 

A  layer  of  plank  is  put  down  and  a  cross  plank  spiked  on 
top.  The  post  is  then  set  and  braced  into  position. 

GENERAL  NOTES   ON   FOUNDATIONS 

Frost.  —  For  a  good  building  be  sure  to  go  below  the  frost 
line.  In  the  middle  west  this  is  about  4  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. But  thousands  of  cottages  are  set  only  about  a  foot  in 
the  ground. 

Dry  Sand  or  gravel  makes  the  best  foundation,  short  of  rock. 
Sometimes  to  improve  a  poor  soil  holes  are  bored  and  dry  sand 
rammed  into  them.  This  not  only  gives  good  soil  in  the  place 
of  poor  in  the  holes  themselves,  but  compacts  the  surrounding 
soil. 

Trenches  are  also  dug  and  rammed  full  of  dry  sand  and 
gravel.  If  the  sides  are  confined  so  that  the  material  can  be 
packed  in,  this  makes  a  good  foundation,  unless  the  soil 
below  is  too  poor. 

Side  Pressure.  —  Sometimes,  again,  ordinary  wood  piles  are 
driven  in,  and  the  soil  compacted  in  this  way.  The  danger 
comes  from  dry  rot,  if  the  piles  are  above  water. 

Wet  Soils  are  improved  by  drainage. 

Direct  Pressure.  —  Keep  the  center  line  of  the  footings  below 
the  center  line  of  the  wall  above.  In  other  words,  do  not 
extend  the  footing  over  on  one  side  more  than  on  the 
other. 

Stepping1.  —  Keep  all  the  foundation  Avails  at  the  same  level 
if  possible,  but  if  not,  step  up  in  stair  fashion,  and  do  not  lay 
on  the  angle.  Any  bricklayer  understands  this  system. 

Concrete  Layers.  —  Tamp  the  concrete  in  layers  of  6  inches 
or  8  inches  thick.  On  soft  soils  see  that  the  footings  are 
spread  wide  enough.  But  after  the  size  is  set,  it  may  be 
found  that  it  is  cheaper  to  use  piles. 

Offsets.  —  As  already  noted  the  offsets  on  concrete  should 
not  be  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  height  of  the  base,  and 
some  allow  only  half.  For  good  heavy  dimension  stone  three- 
fourths  of  the  height  may  be  used. 

Made  Ground.  —  Do  not  build  a  structure  of  any  weight 
on  filled  ground  without  taking  extra  precautions.  Architects 


206     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

have  had  their  reputations  hurt  in  this  neld  trying  to  save 
money  for  the  owners.  Concrete  piles  can  be  used  for  a  heavy 
structure.  Plank  is  often  made  to  serve  for  an  ordinary 
cottage.  A  better  material  now  is  expanded  metal  and  con- 
crete. This  will  make  a  continuous  foundation  if  anything 
will,  and  it  will  be  a  strong  one  if  properly  built  and  allowed 
to  harden  before  the  weight  is  piled  on. 

Paint.  —  If  iron  is  used  below  the  water  level  it  should  be 
well  painted  or  coated  with  asphaltum. 

Concrete.  —  This  seems  to  be  the  best  kind  of  a  material 
for  the  footing  course.  Bricklayers  stand  firmly  by  hard  brick 
laid  in  good  Portland  cement  mortar,  and  properly  wetted  and 
laid  they  make  a  foundation  that  lasts  for  centuries;  but, 
generally  speaking,  concrete  would  seem  to  be  superior.  It 
does  not  require  skilled  labor,  and  hardens  for  several  years 
until  it  is  practically  a  solid  stone  lying  on  the  earth.  It  is 
much  superior  to  rubble  of  the  ordinary  kind. 

Thickness.  —  The  base  should  be  made  12  inches  thick, 
although  8  inches  is  enough  for  cottages  and  light  structures. 

Cements.  —  The  natural  cements  are  seldom  used  now. 
Portland  is  cheap  enough.  The  bearing  load  of  concrete  with 
Portland  is  set  at  15  tons  per  square  foot;  with  natural 
cement,  at  only  8.  This  shows  the  difference  in  values.  The 
crushing  strength  is  15  tons  per  square  foot  for  concrete  a 
month  old;  60  tons  for  6  months  old;  and  96  tons 
for  one  year  old. 

Foundation  Proportions.  —  As  to  quality  of  concrete,  a  mix- 
ture of  1,  2,  5  is  recommended  by  the  Underwriters;  but  1,  3, 
6  is  often  used  and  is  all  right  for  ordinary  work.  This  means 
1  cement,  3  sand,  and  6  broken  stone.  The  measurement 
should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  a  packed  barrel. 

Bubble  has  been  used  for  foundations  for  centuries,  and  it 
is  now  somewhat  too  late  to  say  anything  against  it.  But 
the  rubble  that  was  laid  in  Europe  had  much  wider  founda- 
tions than  ours  to  begin  with,  and  was  also  laid  in  better 
mortar,  as  a  rule,  and  with  closer  joints.  Allusion  is  made 
elsewhere  to  the  walls  of  a  cottage  with  an  8-foot  ceiling 
being  30  inches  thick.  I  have  crawled  through  old  castle 
walls  from  8  feet  to  10  feet  in  thickness.  Why  compare 
our  nicely  proportioned  work  with  that  kind?  Concrete  is 
better  than  the  ordinary  rubble  we  build. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     207 

Thickness.  —  All  good  codes  specify  a  thickness  of  4  inches 
more  for  rubble  than  for  brick. 

Water  Supply.  —  In  country  districts,  and  sometimes  in 
cities,  a  private  supply  has  to  be  put  in.  The  size  of  the  pipe 
has  to  be  regulated  by  the  demand  in  houses,  stables,  and  other 
consuming  points. 

In  some  cities  50  gallons  is  the  amount  used  per  day  per 
family;  in  others,  200.  When  meters  are  used  the  demand  is 
considerably  reduced;  probably  80  gallons  for  a  family  of  five 
is  sufficient;  100  is  liberal. 

The  amount  of  water  delivered  is  regulated  by  the  pressure 
and  the  size  of  the  pipe.  With  the  same  pipe  several  times 
as  much  water  may  be  delivered  by  changing  the  pressure. 

The  following  table  is  made  out  for  a  10-foot  fall  and  a  pipe 
500  feet  long.  All  that  it  is  meant  for  is  merely  an  approxi- 
mate figure.  Here  it  should  be  remembered  that  circles,  or 
ends  of  pipe,  are  to  each  other  as  the  square  of  their  diameter. 
A  1-inch  pipe  and  a  iy2  have  bores  in  the  proportion  of  64  and 
144,  for  the  one  measures  8  eighths  and  the  other  12.  This 
means  that  for  a  little  extra  expense  a  pipe  can  be  had  with 
twice  the  capacity. 

The  table  is  made  out  for  a  24-hour  supply. 

%-inch  bore    576  gals.        %-inch  bore 3,200  gals. 

i/2  "         "     1,150     "  1       "         "     6,624     " 

%"        "     2,040     "  1%  "        "     10,000     " 

SEWERS 

Taking  an  average  all  over  a  city  an  allowance  of  100 
gallons  of  discharge  in  12  hours  is  a  very  large  factor  to  use. 
The  12-hour  basis  really  means  24,  but  we  sleep  one-third  of 
the  time,  and  the  factories  run  only  8  to  10  hours. 


Size  of 
pipe 

Cu.  ft.  per 
second 

Gals,  per 
hour 

Size  of 
pipe 

Cu.  ft.  per 
second 

Gals,  per 
hour 

4-inch 

0.05 

1350 

15-inch 

1.9 

51300 

6     " 

0.15 

4050 

18     " 

3.1 

83700 

8     " 

0.33 

9000 

20     " 

4.1 

110700 

10     " 

0.60 

16200 

24     " 

6.8 

185600 

12     " 

1.00 

27000 

208     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

CARRYING    CAPACITY    OF    SEWER    PIPE 

When  the  area  to  be  drained,  and  the  fall  of  the  sewer  per 
hundred  feet  is  known,  the  size  of  the  pipe  required  can  be 
easily  ascertained  by  referring  to  the  following  table,  which 
shows  the  number  of  gallons  discharged  per  minute  by  specified 
sizes  and  grades.  In  main  sewers  this  flow  of  course  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  added  pressure  of  connecting  laterals: 


CARRYING    CAPACITY— GALLONS    PER    MINUTE 


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89 

111 

156 

194 

224 

317 

389 

8 

140 

198 

246 

348 

432 

499 

706 

864 

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277 

339 

480 

595 

687 

971 

1180 

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261 

369 

457 

648 

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928 

1310 

1610 

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612 

758 

1070 

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2170 

2660 

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1980 

2450 

2830 

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4910 

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1860 

2310 

3260 

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3060 

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15210 

21565 

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Sewer  pipe  have  very  much  greater  carrying  capacity  than 
brick  sewers  of  same  dimensions. 

Statistics  show  the  maximum  rainfall  to  be  about  one  inch 
per  hour,  except  during  very  heavy  and  uncommon  storms. 

One  inch  rainfall  per  hour  gives  22,633  gallons  per  hour 
for  each  acre,  or  377  gallons  per  minute  per  acre. 

Experience  shows  that  owing  to  various  obstructions,  not 
over  50  or  75  per  cent,  of  the  rain  falling  will  reach  the  drain 
within  the  same  hour.  Due  allowance  should  be  made  for 
this  fact  in  determining  the  size  of  pipe  required,  as  severe 
storms  are  generally  of  short  duration. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  SUPERSTRUCTURE   (1) 

WALLS    AND   MASONRY 

Thickness.  —  The  following  table  of  thickness  of  walls  as 
specified  in  the  city  of  Omaha  is  given  as  a  guide  to  average 
practice.  Those  who  have  gone  over  building  codes  know  that 
they  are  practically  alike  in  their  main  features. 

BUSINESS,  MANUFACTURING,  AND  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS 


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All  brick  or  stone  buildings  having  the  first  story,  or  base- 
ment and  first  story,  designed  for  business  purposes  and  the 
upper  stories  for  dwellings,  shall  have  all  walls  of  a  thickness 
not  less  than  the  number  of  inches  shown  in  the  following 
table,  to-wit: 


210    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


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The  above  table  shall  apply  to  all  walls  of  60  feet  and 
under  in  length;  Avails  exceeding  60  feet  in  length  shall  not 
be  allowed  to  have  more  than  2  upper  stories  12  inches  thick, 
and  no  8-inch  wall  will  be  permitted  on  a  building  more  than 
60  feet  in  length.  And  brick  or  stone  dwelling  houses  shall 
have  walls  of  a  thickness  not  less  than  the  number  of  inches 
shown  in  the  following  table,  to-wit: 


DWELLINGS 


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The  above  table  shall  apply  to  all  walls  44  feet  and  under 
in  length;  when  over  44  feet  in  length  such  walls  shall  not 
be  allowed  to  have  more  than  two  upper  stories  12  inches 
thick,  and  no  8-inch  wall  will  be  permitted  on  a  building 
more  than  44  feet  in  length. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     211 

Every  party  wall  must  be  built  through  and  at  least  18 
inches  above  the  roof  boarding,  not  less  than  12  inches  thick. 

Variation  in  Size.  —  But  while  walls  for  dwellings  are 
specified  as  16  inches  in  the  basement,  and  12  and  8  inches 
above,  they  are  usually  built  of  12  inches  for  the  two  first 
stories  and  8  inches  on  the  second.  Here  it  should  be  observed 
that  some  cities  specify  their  walls  in  odd  and  others  in  even 
inches— 9,  13,  17,  21,  25;  and  8,  12,  16,  20,  24.  The  real 
thickness  is  often  midway  between. 

The  Underwriters  for  rubble  and  concrete  call  for  8  inches 
thicker  in  the  basement  than  on  the  first  story,  but  only  4 
inches  difference  if  of  brick.  This  is  for  12  feet  below  the 
curb  level,  and  would  take  in  most  buildings;  if  deeper,  each 
10  feet,  or  fraction,  must  have  4  inches  more.  This  would 
seem  to  flatter  brick  more  than  concrete. 

No  wall,  even  for  a  dwelling,  is  allowed  in  this  code  under 
12  inches. 

Distance  of  Walls.  —  This  Underwriters'  code,  and  most 
others,  are  based  on  a  width  of  not  more  than  25  feet  between 
bearings.  If  the  span  is  more  the  wall  should  be  increased 
4  inches  or  else  have  strong  buttresses.  Not  less  than  4 
inches  of  masonry  is  put  between  the  ends  of  timbers  in  center 
walls  to  block  fire.  One  division  wall,  at  least,  must  be  put 
in  every  50  feet. 

Length.  —  When  a  building  is  more  than  105  feet  long  this 
model  code  would  make  the  walls  4  inches  thicker.  Western 
codes  allow  from  120  to  132  feet. 

HEIGHT    OF    STORIES 

Many  codes  limit  the  height  of  stories  with  the  thicknesses 
as  already  given.  The  Underwriters  give  the  following  limits: 

First  story,   16  feet  in  clear 

Second  story,   14  feet  in  clear 

Third  story,   12    feet   in   clear 

Fourth   and   upper   stories,    11    feet   in   clear 

When  these  heights  have  to  be  exceeded  an  extra  4  inches 
must  be  added.  These  walls  and  all  others  should  come  to 
the  top  of  the  joists  of  each  story  full  thickness. 

Parapets.  —  The  difference  between  an  ideal  code  and  an 
ordinary  one  is  seen  in  the  provision  for  fire  walls  above  the 


212     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

roof.  A  good  many  codes  call  for  18  inches  above  the  boarding, 
but  the  Underwriters  give  24  inches  for  ordinary  buildings, 
and  36  inches  for  business  ones. 

Sameness.  —  Several  years  ago  I  had  occasion  to  go  over  the 
codes  of  about  a  dozen  of  the  leading  cities,  and  it  often 
seemed  that  the  one  was  practically  copied  from  the  other. 
The  Underwriters'  goes  further  in  the  right  direction  than  any 
of  them,  although  it  is  sometimes  too  far  advanced  for  light 
pocketbooks. 

Ashlar.  —  In  calculating  thickness  an  ashlar  course  of  4 
inches  is  not  included;  but  above  that  thickness  is  taken  as  a 
part  of  the  wall  when  well  bonded  and  tied  into  it. 

Bonding.  —  It  is  usual  to  run  headers  every  sixth  or  seventh 
course  in  ordinary  brickwork.  These  headers  should  run  clear 
through  to  the  face  of  the  wall  even  on  a  pressed  brick  front. 
The  big  fires  showred  that. 

Anchors.  —  All  masonry  buildings  should  be  carefully  an- 
chored. Joists  and  walls  are  thus  tied  together.  The  size 
of  the  iron  for  ordinary  work  is  ly2x^s.  The  regular  anchor 
is  made  in  T  shape.  When  the  joists  meet,  as  over  a  girder, 
they  are  fastened  with  strap  anchors. 

The  end  anchors  should  stretch  back  and  take  in  three  joists. 
The  girders  must  be  heavily  anchored  at  the  wall  with  T 
anchors;  and  with  strap  ones  at  the  joints.  Many  buildings 
fell  in  San  Francisco,  at  the  fire,  through  bad  anchorage. 
In  Scotland  I  never  saw  a  wall  anchored.  They  are  made 
thick  enough,  of  good  stone,  good  mortar,  and  good  workman- 
ship to  stand  without  being  tied  up. 

Party  Walls.  —  As  will  be  noticed  in  the  tables,  9-inch  walls 
are  allowed  on  the  top  stories  of  dwellings;  but  party  walls 
should  be  at  least  13  inches  in  a  block  of  flats  or  houses 
of  any  kind,  as  much  for  deadening  sound  as  for  fire  pro- 
tection. 

Thin  Walls.  —  These  are  becoming  more  popular  than  ever, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  fire  insurance  men  do  not  like 
them.  They  are  used  on  top  stories,  and  with  the  right  kind 
of  tile  are  nearly  10  inches  thick.  The  inside  course  is  of 
hollow  tile.  This  is  often  protected  with  a  damp-proof  mixture, 
and  the  plaster  applied  directly  to  the  wall.  In  frosty,  rainy 
climates  the  damp  sometimes  comes  through.  Furring  is  the 
old  remedy,  and  it  is  a  safe  one.  The  danger  is  that  when  the 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     213 

carpenters  plug  a  9-inch  wall  they  will  drive  the  bricks  loose 
on  the  outside. 

Mortar.  —  Do  not  use  bad  mortar,  and  this  is  often  equiv- 
alent to  saying  lime  mortar.  Never  forget  the  St.  Louis 
cyclone  and  the  fires  at  Baltimore  and  San  Francisco.  Poor 
mortar  lay  at  the  root  of  a  great  deal  of  the  trouble.  It  pays 
to  put  some  Portland  cement  among  the  lime,  if  that  is  used. 

A  mortar  of  one-fourth  Portland  cement  and  three-fourths 
lime  makes  an  excellent  wall.  The  U.  S.  engineers  give  1  of 
lime  paste  and  2  of  sand  as  the  best  for  lime  alone,  but  few 
contractors  like  to  use  such  a  rich  mixture.  One  to  3  is  about 
right  for  natural  cement,  which  is  not  so  much  used  now. 
One  to  2  should  be  used  for  the  best  work. 

For  Portland  1  to  3  for  the  best  masonry,  and  1  to  4  for 
ordinary  construction.  For  rubble  1  to  4  is  used. 

The  Underwriters  give  1  to  4  for  lime,  but  much  depends 
upon  the  brand  used.  There  are  limes  that  are  hardly  worth 
taking  as  a  gift.  For  cement,  1  to  3;  for  cement  and  lime 
mortar,  1  of  slaked  lime  paste,  1  of  cement,  and  not  more 
than  3  parts  of  sand  to  each. 

Shoring.  —  Bricklayers  should  know  enough  to  shore  their 
walls,  but  they  often  forget  and  trouble  comes.  When  writing 
this  I  saw  a  building  a  few  weeks  old,  with  steel  channels 
bolted  along  the  outside  of  the  brick  wall,  and  wood  shoring 
behind  that,  to  keep  it  from  going  into  a  mass  of  ruins.  The 
shoring  was  done,  but  it  was  too  late. 

Disaster.  —  I  once  saw  a  brick  gable  150  feet  wide,  40  feet 
high,  and  17  inches  thick  that  seemed  strong  enough  but  was 
blown  down  on  a  stormy  afternoon,  and  all  the  window  frames 
and  coping  tile  with  it.  This  kind  of  work  costs  money. 

SAFE  LOADS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT 

The  Underwriters  give  the  following  allowances  for  masonry: 

BRICKWORK  RUBBLE 

In  lime  mortar ....     8       tons       In  lime  mortar 5  tons 

In  lime  and  cement  11%    '"          In    lime    and    cement 

In  Portland  cement  15        "  mortar     7    " 

In      natural      cement 

mortar 8    " 

In    Portland    cement 
mortar  .    10  " 


214:    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

CONCRETE 

In  natural  cement 8  tons 

In  Portland  cement  mortar    15     " 

The  1905  Chicago  code  has  the  following  provisions: 

BRICKWOBK  DIMENSION   STONE 

In  lime  mortar  .  .  .     6%  tons       In  Portland  cement  10       tons 
In  natural  cement.      9        "  In  Portland  cement 

In  Portland  cement  12y2    "  dressed  and  level 

on  solid  beds 12y2    " 

CONCRETE 

In  Portland  cement,  not  reinforced 12y2  tons 

BOSTON   CODE 

Granite,   cut 60  tons  Hardest    brick    in    1 

Marble  and  lime-  cement,    1    lime,   4 

stone,  cut 40    "  sand 12  tons 

Sandstone,  hard,  cut  30    "  Hardest      brick      in 
Hardest   brick    in    1  lime  mortar  alone       8    " 

to  2  cement  mortar  15    " 

For  light  hard  brick  use  only  two-thirds  of  the  above  loads. 

Piers.  —  For  brick  piers  whose  heights  run  from  6  to  12 
times  their  least  dimension  the  above  Boston  loads  are  reduced 
to  13,  10,  and  7. 

Piers  are  often  spoiled,  both  for  strength  and  looks,  by  being 
built  too  small.  The  difference  in  cost  is  nothing  to  speak  of 
between  a  13"xl3",  or  even  a  17"xl7",  as  compared  with  a 
9"  x  9"  under  a  heavy  porch,  yet  the  light  one  is  used,  and 
often  goes  to  pieces. 

In  store  fronts  too,  we  see  the  same  bad  policy  carried  out. 
The  idea  is  to  give  as  much  glass  surface  as  possible,  but  it  is 
not  worth  spoiling  the  building  for  this.  For  such  a  pier  a 
load  of  4  tons  to  the  square  foot  is  enough  in  the  best  lime 
mortar  or  natural  cement,  and  8  to  10  in  the  strongest  Port- 
land. If  anywhere,  good  mortar  should  be  put  in  piers. 

Example.  —  Suppose  a  store  front  of  44-foot  span  with 
I-beams  supported  in  the  center  on  a  brick  pier.  Let  us 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     215 

assume  that  there  are  two  stories  above  the  I-beams,  the  first 
with  a  13-inch  wall,  and  the  other  with  a  9-inch.  Measuring 
back  16  feet  from  the  inside  of  the  front  wall  a  column  is 
placed  to  support  the  floors  above,  and  other  columns  are  set 
at  the  same  centers  clear  back  to  the  rear  of  the  building. 

Floor  Load.  —  For  the  store  floor  allow  a  load  of  150  pounds 
to  the  square  foot  and  70  pounds  for  the  two  upper  ones,  this 
to  include  the  weight  of  the  floor  itself  and  the  live  load 
also. 

The  two  upper  stories  to  have  a  height  of  10  feet  in  the 
clear.  No  partitions  or  ceiling  joists  to  be  considered,  so  as 
to  make  fewer  figures.  Each  building  has  to  be  analyzed. 
The  method  only  is  given  here. 

Pier.  —  What  size  of  a  brick  pier  is  required  in  the  center 
to  support  the  load?  There  are  two  bearings  required.  One 
below  the  level  of  the  store  floor  and  another  up  under  the 
I-beams. 

The  walls  may  be  taken  solid  without  deduction  for  windows, 
and  thus  the  weight  will  be  large  enough.  The  top  of  the 
I-beam  is  usually  placed  about  level  with  the  top  of  the  joists, 
or  a  little  below.  We  can  figure  the  brickwork  as  starting 
6  inches  below  the  top  of  the  floor  to  be  safe. 

The  pier,  it  can  be  readily  seen,  will  carry  half  the  weight 
of  the  front  wall  clear  to  the  roof,  and  the  other  two  quarters 
of  the  weight  will  be  transmitted  to  the  outside  walls. 

WEIGHTS 

Pounds 
Front  wall,  22'  long  x  11'6"  from  top  of  I-beam  to  top 

of  third  story  floor  joists.  13"— 120  Ibs.  to  sq.  ft.  .  .  30,360 
Front  wall,  22'  x  15'  x  9",  from  top  of  third  story  joists 

to  top  of  parapet  above  roof  at  80  Ibs.  to  sq.  ft 26,400 

Store  floor,  8'  back  x  22'  x  150  Ibs 26,400 

Upper  floors,  8'  x  22'  x  2  x  70  Ibs 24,640 

Roof,  8'  x  22'  x  50  Ibs 8,800 


116,600 

Beam  Capacity.  —  Thus  far,  we  have  a  trifle  over  58  tons. 
The  tables  of  beam  capacities  include  the  weight  of  the  beam, 
itself,  as  a  rule,  and  it  need  not  be  included  here. 


216     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  corners  of  the  outside  walls  are  usually  carried  in  on 
the  inside  to  receive  the  end  of  the  beam,  and  when  we  con- 
sider these  corners,  and  the  pier  in  the  middle,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  the  clear  span  will  not  be  21  feet.  We  can  therefore 
take  this  distance  in  the  table,  given  elsewhere  in  this  book. 

A  12-inch  40-pound  beam  carries  11.9  tons;  twice  this  is 
23.8  for  the  double  beam  required  under  the  13-inch  wall;  and 
across  the  entire  front,  47.6.  This  apparently  is  too  light  a 
beam;  but  the  full  weight  is  never  piled  on  any  floor  at  one 
time.  From  80  to  85  per  cent,  is  usually  allowed.  Instead  of 
50  pounds  we  used  to  allow  only  40  for  roofs  with  spans  of 
150  and  175  feet.  This  included  heavy  steel  trusses,  wind 
pressure,  and  everything  else.  Judging  from  this,  50  pounds 
is  too  much,  although  it  is  often  used. 

Allowing  85  per  cent,  we  get  49  tons;  and  the  two  12-inch, 
40-pound  beams  will  thus  carry  the  load  because  of  the  window 
openings  that  reduce  the  total  weight.  If,  as  is  now  common, 
hollow  tile  are  used  on  the  inside  of  the  walls,  the  total  is 
still  further  reduced,  for  the  figures  are  made  out  for  ordinary 
brickwork. 

Some  might  prefer  to  use  two  15-inch,  41-pound  beams 
to  guard  against  deflection  or  bending.  These  carry  14.4  tons 
each,  or  a  total  of  57.6  tons.  Deep  beams  should  always  be 
used  in  preference  to  shallow  ones. 

The  method  of  figuring  out  the  load  for  the  other  beams 
running  from  front  to  rear  is  explained  elsewhere. 

The  top  pier  comes  up  directly  under  the  I-beams,  and  the 
question  is,  How  much  surface  must  it  have  for  a  safe  bearing? 

Size.  —  This  total  does  not  include  the  store  floor.  The  load 
is  thus  reduced  to  45  tons.  If  the  pier  is  laid  up  in  the  best 
brick  and  Portland  cement  mortar  we  require  a  bearing  area 
of  a  little  less  than  4  square  feet,  or  2'  x  2'.  This  size  would 
provide  for  the  beams  running  in  the  other  direction  also,  or 
at  right  angles  from  the  store  front,  for  our  front  wall  and 
upper  floor  load  combined  would  not  exceed  50  tons.  When 
we  consider  that  the  actual  floor  loads  in  a  large  wholesale 
warehouse  were  found  to  be  only  50  pounds,  not  including  the 
weight  of  the  floor  itself,  we  can  see  that  the  70  pounds  allowed 
for  dwellings  above  the  store  we  are  considering  is  too  high. 

Lower  Pier.  —  The  one  below  the  level  of  the  store  front  has 
to  be  considered.  There  are  58  tons  and  the  weight  of  the 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     217 

2'  x  2'  pier.  Adding  3  tons  for  this  makes  a  total  of  61, 
allowing  the  full  load.  This  would  require  a  base  of  5  square 
feet.  If  any  sidewalk  weights  came  upon  this  pier  they  would 
have  to  be  added. 

Down  in  the  basement  architects  are  inclined  to  be  safe 
rather  than  take  chances.  Taking  85  per  cent,  of  the  total  load 
we  get  about  52  tons.  Using  the  best  Portland  cement  work  and 
the  Boston  allowance  of  15  to  the  square  foot  we  really  require 
only  3%  square  feet  here,  and  thus  a  pier  2' x  2'  would  be 
ample.  But  the  difference  between  a  pier  with  5  square  feet 
and  another  with  4  is  only  a  few  dollars. 

Base.  —  The  base  on  the  soil  has  to  be  arranged  to  suit  its 
bearing  power.  If  3  tons  are  taken  that  means  20  square  feet; 
if  2  tons,  30. 

Mortar.  —  In  all  of  the  above,  Portland  cement  is  taken ;  if 
lime  is  used  and  8  tons  is  the  limit,  that  means  a  larger  pier. 

Piers  for  Columns  running  from  front  to  rear  are  figured 
out  in  the  next  chapter. 

Bearing  Plates  should  be  used  on  top  of  piers  or  cap  stones. 

Height.  —  In  the  above  discussion  the  piers  are  assumed  to 
be  of  the  ordinary  height.  When  they  exceed  in  height  seven 
times  their  smallest  dimension,  4  inches  should  be  added  for 
every  6  feet  or  part  of  6  feet.  Thus  a  store  front  pier  about 
12  feet  high  at  25"  x  21"  should  be  made  25"  x  25"  for  anything 
over  that  height. 

According  to  the  Underwriters,  isolated  brick  piers  should 
not  exceed  in  height  10  times  their  least  dimension. 

Stone  Piers  of  good  squared  material  should  not  exceed  10 
times  their  least  dimension  in  height. 

Bubble.  —  This  material  makes  a  poor  pier  unless  the  size 
can  be  made  large  enough,  as  in  a  basement. 

Bonds.  —  A  well  built  pier  does  not  require  bond  stones,  but 
a  sheet  of  expanded  metal  is  an  excellent  binder.  The  Chi- 
cago ordinance  calls  for  a  plate  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  not 
less  than  ^-inch  thick,  but  expanded  metal  is  better.  For 
a  fine  joint,  as  in  pressed  brick,  expanded  metal  lath  can  be 
used. 

The  New  York  code  requires  bond  stones.  The  Underwriters' 
code  calls  for  a  bond  of  cast  iron  or  steel  every  30  inches  if 
the  pier  has  less  than  9  square  feet  of  a  base  and  when  there 
is  a  span  of  more  than  10  feet. 


218     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Cap  Stones.  —  The  Underwriters'  code  allows  cap  stones  on 
the  front  of  the  building  to  correspond  with  the  bond  stones 
or  other  trimmings,  but  they  must  cover  the  entire  area  of  the 
pier  and  be  not  less  than  5  inches  thick. 

The  Doubled  I-Beams  over  store  fronts  have  to  be  bolted 
together  \vith  separators  between,  and  bearing  plates  provided 
under  the  ends. 

RETAINING  WALLS 

Material.  —  Taking  everything  into  consideration,  probably 
a  concrete  made  of  good  Portland  cement  is  the  best  material 
to  use  for  retaining  walls.  It  may  be  put  in  place  by  unskilled 
labor,  and  this  is  occasionally  a  great  advantage. 

Proportions.  —  The  danger  in  some  sections  of  the  country 
is  in  using  a  mixture  that  will  let  water  go  through.  An 
ordinary  concrete  of  1,  3,  6  will  not  hold  water,  nor  will  1,  3,  5. 
The  poorest  that  can  be  used  is  1,  2y2,  5;  and  for  the  best  work 
with  a  wet  soil  behind,  the  mixture  should  be  1,  2,  4.  No 
stone  or  gravel  should  be  more  than  %-inch  diameter. 

Wet  Soils  should  be  drained.  Not  long  before  this  writing 
I  saw  a  retaining  wall  washed  out  by  water  getting  in  behind  it. 

Frost.  —  In  the  middle  west  we  keep  4  feet  below  the  surface 
for  a  frost  line.  Retaining  walls,  especially,  should  go  below 
frost  in  a  rainy  climate,  for  if  the  frost  heave  them  and  a  crack 
develops,  the  road  is  open  for  a  wreck. 

The  Section  of  wall  chosen  seems  to  depend  upon  the  taste, 
as  all  kinds  are  used.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  keep  the 
face  of  the  wall  plumb,  and  again,  in  other  cases,  battered 
ones  are  better.  The  batter  or  slope  of  the  face  side  may  be 
used  up  to  iy2  inches  to  the  foot  of  height.  Thus  a  wall  4  feet 
high  above  the  grade  would  be  6  inches  out  of  plumb. 

Stepped.  —  A  wall  may  run  up  the  back  on  a  straight  slope 
or  be  stepped  from  one  thickness  to  another.  The  stepping 
helps  to  retain  the  earth  and  keeps  it  from  "  wedging  "  down 
and  forcing  out  the  masonry.  It  is  the  difference  between  a 
straight  slope  and  a  stair. 

In  case  the  stepped-up  wall  is  chosen  the  plank  forms  have 
to  be  made  in  sections  instead  of  in  a  single  slope.  Thus  the 
first  base  might  be  2  feet  2  inches,  carried  up  a  foot;  the  next, 
1  foot  11  inches,  carried  up  another  foot;  the  one  above,  1  foot 
8  inches,  and  so  on. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     219 

Plastering  cement  work  on  the  face  does  not  seem  to  be 
much  of  a  success.  It  should  stick,  but  it  often  cracks  and 
falls  off.  The  time  to  plaster  is  when  the  main  body  of  the 
concrete  is  still  green,  and  the  forms  cannot  be  removed  then. 
There  is  not  so  good  a  chance  on  a  dry  surface.  The  best  way 
is  to  plaster  the  inside  of  the  boards  just  a  little  ahead  of  the 
time  when  the  concrete  is  poured  in,  and  by  working  a  thin 
blade  of  some  kind  in  between  the  mortar  and  the  wood,  any 
places  that  are  not  closely  filled  may  be  made  right.  This 
course  will  usually  give  a  good  enough  surface  for  ordinary 
work. 

Plaster  does  not  stick  on  the  top  of  the  wall  either.  After  a 
time  it  cracks  and  falls  off.  Smooth  the  mass  with  a  trowel 
on  top  or  a  wood  float.  The  main  idea  all  through  is  to  get 
the  mass  and  the  surface  bound  together,  and  not  plaster  the 
one  on  the  face  of  the  other.  When  the  boards  are  plastered  as 
suggested  a  rich  mixture  of  not  more  than  1  to  1%  should  be 
used,  and  this  will  keep  out  the  water.  In  arid  or  semi-arid 
regions,  such  precautions  do  not  need  to  be  taken. 

The  Underwriters  give  their  retaining  wall  rule  as  follows: 
The  thickness  of  a  retaining  wall  at  its  base  shall  be  in  no 
case  less  than  one-fourth  of  its  height. 

A  retaining  wall  is  usually  thinner  at  the  top  than  the 
bottom,  although  they  make  no  allowance  for  this. 

There  are  many  different  theories  of  retaining  walls.  The 
following  table  will  give  a  fair  average  idea  of  what  the 
dimensions  should  be.  A  depth  of  4  feet  below  the  surface 
is  figured. 

RETAINING    WALL    TABLE 


Height  above 
ground              Total  height 

Thickness 
at  base 

Thickness 
at  surface 

Thickness 
at  top 

2' 

6' 

2'  2" 

1'  6" 

10" 

3 

7 

2    5 

1    7 

10 

4 

8 

2    9 

1  11 

12 

5 

9 

3    2 

2    1 

12 

6 

10 

3    6 

2    5 

15 

7 

11 

3  10 

2    8 

18 

8 

12 

4    2 

2  10 

18 

220    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

STONE    LINTELS 

Size.  —  The  longest  stone  lintel  in  any  contract  I  ever  had 
was  about  16  feet,  and  the  section  was  perhaps  24"  x  20". 
Naturally,  it  had  to  be  supported  by  an  unseen  steel  beam. 
This  means  that  beyond  a  certain  limit  it  is  not  safe  to  trust 
to  stone  alone. 

Concrete.  —  In  a  new  building  I  know  of,  three  or  four 
stories  high,  all  the  cement  stone  lintels  are  cracked  in  the 
center.  This  means,  also,  that  for  narrow  openings  it  is  not 
wise  to  use  the  new  kind  of  stone  without  reinforcement.  Long 
beams  of  reinforced  concrete  are  made  for  all  widths  of  build- 
ings, and  there  is  no  reason  why  such  a  lintel  over  a  narrow 
window  should  crack. 

Several  kinds  of  reinforcement  may  be  used  for  lintels. 
There  are  rods,  bars,  barbed  wire,  or  a  sheet  of  expanded 
metal  kept  back  from  the  edge  so  that  it  will  not  show.  The 
reinforcement  of  this  kind  should  be  put  at  the  bottom  of  the 
lintel  with  just  about  enough  mortar  below  it  to  cover  the 
steel. 

Supposing  the  lintel  to  be  10  inches  deep,  for  example,  the 
reinforcement  would  be  placed  about  an  inch  from  the  bottom. 
The  metal  acts  like  a  rope,  if  such  an  illustration  may  be  used. 
To  hold  the  mass  the  rope  must  be  put  as  low  as  possible.  It 
would  do  no  good  if  put  on  top. 

Safe  Load.  —  Generally  this  is  never  figured  out.  Everybody 
uses  the  sizes  that  have  been  used  since  before  Shakespeare's 
day,  to  go  no  further  back.  Two  standard  sizes  are  4"  x  10" 
and  8"  x  12".  The  thin  one  is  put  where  there  is  only  the 
usual  brick  reveal. 

Every  bricklayer  knows  that  the  load  relieves  itself  after  a 
few  feet  of  brickwork  are  laid  above  the  stone.  An  arch  is 
formed  of  itself  like  an  inverted  V. 

For  special  work  we  can  multiply  the  width  of  the  stone  by 
the  square  of  its  depth.  Then  divide  by  the  span  in  inches; 
and  for  sandstone  multiply  by  0.08;  limestone,  0.10;  granite, 
0.12.  Suppose  we  have  an  8  x  12  x  60-inch  span  in  the  clear. 
The  figures  would  be  8  x  12  x  12,  divided  by  60,  and  multiplied 
by  0.08  for  sandstone.  The  load  would  be  1.536  tons  or  3,072 
pounds.  For  a  concentrated  load  allow  half. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     221 

BRICK    CHIMNEY    STACKS 

Diameter.  —  At  the  base  the  outside  measurement  should  not 
be  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  total  height  of  the  chimney.  For 
a  square  one,  the  side  is  made  one-tenth  also.  Round  chimneys 
are  generally  considered  better  than  square  ones. 

In  building  some  railroad  shops  we  had  several  large  chim- 
neys— one  at  175  feet,  and  the  other  at  200  feet.  They  were 
built  of  radial  brick  of  the  same  kind  as  those  used  for  the 
highest  chimney  in  the  world  at  Butte,  Montana.  Above  the 
foundation  this  chimney  is  506  feet  in  height;  the  inside 
diameter  is  04  feet  at  bottom  and  50  feet  at  top.  The  walls 
are  66  inches  at  bottom  and  18  inches  at  top.  The  foundation 
walls  are  28  feet  thick.  The  foundation  cost  $50,000,  and  the 
chimney  proper  rbout  $200,000.  The  foundation  was  tested 
to  a  weight  of  104  tons  to  the  square  foot.  The  chimney  was 
lined,  after  it  was  built,  with  a  4-inch  lining  of  heat  resisting 
and  acid  proof  bricks.  Smelter  work  is  hard  on  the  inside  of 
chimneys. 

The  radial  brick  chimneys  are  usually  unlined.  The  shop 
ones  referred  to  had  no  lining.  With  ordinary  brick  it  is 
customary  to  line  with  fire  brick  up  to  25  or  30  feet. 

Thickness.  —  Molesworth's  rule  for  the  thickness  of  high 
chimneys  is  well  known.  It  is  9  inches  from  the  top  to  25  feet 
down;  from  that,  13  inches  to  50  feet  down;  and  17  inches  from 
that  to  75  feet  down.  For  each  25  feet  coming  down  increase 
4  inches. 

This  is  for  the  ordinary  chimney.  Those  with  a  diameter  of 
4  feet  6  inches  at  top  should  not  be  less  than  13  inches  there, 
and  be  4  inches  thicker  all  the  way  down  than  the  standard 
sized  ones. 

Batter.  —  The  regular  batter  is  0.3  inches  to  the  foot,  or 
nearly  five-sixteenths. 

Cores  on  the  inside  do  not  seem  to  be  so  much  used  now  as 
formerly. 

Lightning  Rods  are  more  popular  than  they  were  some  years 
ago.  One  of  the  chimneys  on  the  railroad  shops  was  struck 
by  lightning.  On  the  big  one  at  Butte  16  rods  of  round 
copper,  1  inch  diameter,  are  installed. 

The  tendency  now  is  to  use  smaller  and  lower  chimneys  and 
more  of  them  in  ordinary  plants.  Forced  draft  is  resorted  to 
rather  than  great  height. 


Inside  diam. 
at  top 

14" 

H.  P.  of 

boiler 

70 

Height  of 
chimney 

120' 

Inside  diam. 
at  top 

30" 

14 

90 

120 

34 

16 

120 

135 

38 

17 

160 

150 

43 

21 

200 

165 

47 

26 

250 

180 

42 

27 

380 

200 

57 

222     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

HEIGHT  AND  DIAMETER  OF  ORDINARY  BOILER  CHIMNEYS 

Horsepower     Height  of 
of  boiler         chimney 

10  60' 

12  75 

16  90 

20  100 

30  105 

50  120 

60  120 


Self-supporting1  Steel  Chimneys.  —  In  the  shops  alluded  to 
these  were  first  figured  on,  but  radial  bricks  were  chosen. 
They  are  anchored  down  to  a  deep  foundation  with  rods  of 
large  diameter.  Construction  of  this  kind,  as  well  as  that  for 
reinforced  chimneys,  belongs  rather  to  the  specialist  than  to 
the  ordinary  contractor.  The  distressing  number  of  such 
chimneys  that  have  fallen  in  the  dust  shows  that  even  the 
experts  have  still  something  to  learn. 

In  1909  I  watched  a  large  one  being  taken  down  after  a  too 
brief  service.  Someone  had  blundered. 

It  is  said  that  the  fire  takes  the  life  out  of  the  concrete. 
One  of  the  hollow  tile  companies  makes  a  specialty  of  covering 
concrete  fire-proofing  with  tile.  Even  if  the  tile  is  destroyed 
the  concrete  is  saved,  and  a  new  covering  or  lining  can  be 
put  in  at  a  reasonable  cost. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  SUPERSTRUCTURE   (2) 

FLOOR  LOADS 

Average  Code.  —  The  requirements  in  the  following  table 
are  about  the  standards,  and  safe  enough  for  any  construction. 

TABLE   OF  FLOOR   LOADS 

All  floors  shall  be  constructed  to  bear  a  safe  weight  per 
superficial  foot,  exclusive  of  materials,  as  follows: 

For  armories,  drill  halls,  storage  warehouses  250  Ibs. 

Retail  stores 150  " 

Public  buildings    125  " 

Large  halls,  corridors,  rotundas,  etc.,  of  hotels  125  " 

All  other  rooms  in  hotels 75  " 

Office  buildings 75  " 

Dwelling  houses 50  " 

The  ideal  code  of  the  Underwriters  gives  the  weights  allowed, 
but  this  does  not  include  the  materials  in  the  floor,  which 
must  be  added: 

Dwellings    60  Ibs. 

Office  buildings,  first  floor 150    " 

above  first  floor   75  " 

Schools     75  " 

Stables  and  carriage  houses    75  " 

Public  assembly  buildings   90  " 

Stores,  light  manufacturing  and  light 'storage  150  " 

Flat  roofs    50  " 

Pitched  roofs  measured  on  the  level 30  " 

Sidewalks,  live  load   300  " 

223 


224    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Live  Load.  —  This  code  when  dealing  with  buildings  of  more 
than  five  stories  allows  the  following  reduction:  For  the 
roof  and  top  floor  the  full  live  load  must  be  figured.  For 
each  succeeding  lower  floor  it  may  be  reduced  50  per  cent., 
until  50  per  cent,  of  the  live  load  is  reached,  and  this  load 
shall  then  be  used  clear  down  on  the  remaining  floors.  This 
is  to  establish  the  weight  on  columns.  The  floor  loads  are 
to  be  distributed,  and  not  concentrated. 

It  is  usually  just  as  easy  to  load  floors  close  to  the  bearing 
of  wall  or  column  as  to  pile  up  the  weight  in  the  center  on 
the  weakest  part  of  the  floor;  but  there  are  many  whole- 
salers and  merchants  who  never  seem  to  get  this  idea  in 
their  minds. 

Limit.  —  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  Underwriters'  code  that 
the  heaviest  load  for  the  building  proper  is  150  pounds.  Bos- 
ton, Omaha,  and  some  other  cities  give  250.  In  many  of  the 
new  reinforced  concrete  warehouses  the  allowance  is  more 
than  twice  as  much.  In  the  old  style  of  warehouses  the  ceil- 
ings were  purposely  kept  low  in  order  to  prevent  overloading. 

Choice.  —  Here,  then,  are  two  good  standards  to  go  by — 
first,  the  one  used  by  average  cities,  and,  second,  the  ideal 
one  recommended  by  the  fire  insurance  companies  of  the 
United  States. 

Wide  Spans.  —  In  schoolrooms  there  is  usually  a  width  of 
26  or  28  feet,  and  contractors  who  have  laid  the  3  x  14  or 
3x16  joists  know  that  they  are  strong  enough  to  carry 
several  times  the  load  that  ever  comes  upon  them.  But  those 
who  have  had  to  hoist  and  lay  them  by  ropes  and  main 
strength  up  on  the  second  story  have  often  wished  that  the 
architects  could  substitute  something  lighter. 

This  length  has  always  been  necessary  on  account  of  the 
number  of  scholars.  Each  room  is  supposed  to  hold  from 
45  to  50.  But  now  the  limit  is  lowering  to  40;  and  one 
private  school  in  New  York  allows  only  15.  The  day  of  the 
large  schoolroom  is  passing. 

Example.  —  Suppose  now  that  we  take  a  building  as  before, 
40'  x  100',  to  get  the  size  of  the  timbers.  The  span  between 
wall  and  columns,  and  between  columns,  was  set  at  16  feet, 
but  let  us  take  14  here,  and  this  will  keep  us  from  having 
the  idea  that  there  is  any  fixed  distance.  It  might  be  made 
12  feet  if  we  wanted  to. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     225 

The  joists  are  20  feet  long,  and  the  weight  is  to  be  125 
pounds  to  the  square  foot,  including  that  of  the  floor  itself. 
The  joist  is  shorter,  of  course,  but  the  bearing  is  also  included, 
as  we  do  not  figure  down  to  a  fraction  where  there  are  so 
many  factors  that  we  cannot  exactly  determine,  like  the 
resistance  of  the  soil  to  pressure,  and  so  on. 

Weight.  —  From  column  to  column,  then,  is  14  feet;  and 
from  the  column  half  way  to  the  walls  on  each  side  is  10  feet. 
Measuring  half  way  between  bearings,  both  ways,  we  have  a 
space  of  14  feet  running  the  long  way  of  the  building,  and 
20  feet  the  cross  way.  As  the  column  stands  exactly  in  the 
center,  it  supports  all  this  area. 

But  measuring  from  center  to  center  of  columns  we  have 
the  same  14  feet,  and  thus  we  see  that  the  girder  which 
connects  them  supports  all  this  space  of  14'  x  20'  x  125  Ibs.— 
35,000.  This  is  only  for  one  floor. 

We  require  a  girder  of  steel  or  wood  between  the  columns 
that  will  support  35,000. 

Trial  Test.  —  A  long-leafed  Y.  P.  girder  of  not  more  than 
14  inches  deep  may  be  tried  first.  Looking  at  the  table  given 
on  page  237  we  see  that  a  3  x  14  on  a  14-foot  span  will  support 
2.91  tons.  The  third  of  this  is  0.97,  or  close  enough  to  a 
ton  to  call  it  so,  for  a  1  x  14.  As  our  weight  is  17%  tons  we 
therefore  require  a  girder  17%  inches  wide,  and  this  is  out 
of  the  question. 

Referring  again  to  the  table  we  find  that  a  3x16  Y.  P.  joist 
carries  3.80  tons.  One-third  of  this  is  1.27.  Dividing  17% 
tons  by  this  shows  that  the  width  at  16  deep  would  be 
14  inches.  Timbers  come  less  than  the  full  size ;  and  a 
14x16  would  measure  only  13%  x  15%  at  most.  Considering 
that  85  per  cent. .  of  the  load  is  enough  to  figure  on,  the  size 
would  be  large  enough.  Two  good,  sound,  dry  6"  x  16"  timbers 
bolted  together  would  hold  the  load. 

Flitch  Plates.  —  This  style  of  girder  is  not  so  common  as 
formerly.  It  is  made  by  putting  a  plate  of  steel  between 
two  girders  and  bolting  them  together.  When  the  fire  comes 
the  steel  is  protected  from  buckling.  Sometimes  a  triple  beam 
is  used  with  two  of  these  plates.  The  bolts  are  usually  about 
%-inch  diameter,  spaced  from  20  inches  to  24  inches.  Directly 
above  the  bearing  on  each  end  two  bolts  are  put  in.  The  other 
bolts  are  put  not  more  than  3  inches  from  the  edge,  and 


226     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

staggered.     If  an  iron  plate  is  used  the  wood  should  be  about 
11  times  as  thick;  if  a  steel  one,  15  times. 

In  the  following  tables  for  Flitch  plate  girders  it  should 
be  remembered  that  the  timbers  come  a  little  less  than  the  full 
size.  The  tables  are  made  out  to  suit  the  market  size. 


TABLE    FOR    FLITCH     PLATE     GIRDERS 

Safe  load  in  pounds  uniformly  distributed,  supported  at 
both  ends. 

For  concentrated  load  in  center  allow  one-half  the  load  given 
in  tables. 


OJ 

£ 

a 

a 

Bj 
Oi 
02 

SIZE    OF    GIRDER 

Beams  2-3x8 
Plato  y3x7y2 

j^  Beams  2-3x10 
<g  Plato  y2x9ya 

a 

N^ 
M*1 

W* 

2* 

g   0 

gS 

K^ 
26,297 

Tf^J 

£co 

«?M 
N^« 

03^ 
S« 

|r 
30,240 

Beams  2-3x10 
Plate  y2xloy2 

Beams  2-3x1  8 
Plate  y2xl7ya 

10 

11,185 

47,773 

60,897 

12 

9,321 

14,955 

21,915 

30,200 

39,811 

50,748 

14 

7,989 

12,819 

18,784 

25,886 

34,124 

43,498 

16 

6,991 

11,216 

16,436 

22,650 

29,859 

38,061 

18 

6,214 

9,970 

14,609 

20,133 

26,540 

33,832 

20 

5,592 

8,973 

13,148 

18,120 

23,887 

30,449 

22 

5,084 

8,157 

11,953 

16,476 

21,715 

27,680 

24 

4,660 

7,478 

10,958 

15,100 

19,906 

25,374 

26 

4,302 

6,902 

10,114 

13,938 

18,374 

23,422 

28 

3,995 

6,409 

9,392 

12,943 

17,062 

21,749 

30 

3,728 

5,982 

8,766 

12,080 

15,924 

20,299 

32 

3,496 

5,608 

8,218 

11,325 

14,929 

19,031 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     227 


•M 

1 

SIZE    OF    GIRDER 

00  M 
MO 

Ooi 
HO 

TH 

01  rH 

'MO 

CO 

'MO 

10 

OrH 

rH  M 
MO 

00  rH 
33 

rt 

<NrH 

<^rH 

CNrH 

CJrH 

(NrH 

<NrH 

a 

grrH 

II 

ii 

w1-* 

|| 

B5  I™1 

as 

as 

02  T~l 

as 

0, 

02 

10 

M£ 

24,554 

wS 

MS 

mS 

«S 

15,184 

35,985 

49,603 

65,388 

83,350 

12 

12,653 

20,462 

29,988 

41,336 

54,490 

69,459 

14 

10,845 

17,539 

25,704 

35,431 

46,706 

59,536 

16 

9,490 

15,346 

22,491 

31,002 

40,861 

52,094 

18 

8,436 

13,641 

19,992 

27,557 

36,327 

46,306 

20 

7,592 

12,277 

17,992 

24,802 

32,694 

41,675 

22 

6,902 

11,161 

16,357 

22,547 

29,722 

37,886 

24 

6,326 

10,231 

14,994 

20,668 

27,245 

34,729 

26 

5,840 

9,444 

13,841 

19,078 

25,149 

32,057 

28 

5,423 

8,769 

12,852 

17,715 

23,353 

29,768 

30 

5,061 

8,185 

11,995 

16,534 

21,796 

27,783 

32           4,745 

7,673 

11,246 

15,501 

20,431 

26,047 

SIZE  OF  GIRDER 


0 

3* 

s  « 

o^ 

2* 

s* 

s5 

as- 

M  io 

g 

005 

o  ^ 

CD  W 

^rH 

rH 

op  ^ 

op  w 

°^-S 

C^l  M 

<N  M 

<N  M 

5<j  ei^ 

M  ei^ 

ci  ^ 

a 

-_  ^ 

CD  T~l 

03  ^ 

O5 

03^ 

w 

02  ^ 

rH 

G 
oj 

I-2 

as 

|S 

as 

§"§ 

I"8 

a 

^2 

CQCw 

wS 

SS 

CQ£ 

coS 

«S 

wS' 

10 

35,892 

52,595 

72,480 

95,547 

121,795 

100,093 

130,776 

166,702 

12 

29,910 

43,829 

60,400 

79,623 

101,496 

83,411 

108,980 

138,919 

14 

25,637 

37,568 

51,772 

68,248 

86,997 

71,495 

93,411 

119,073 

]  (> 

22,432 

32,872 

45,301 

59,717 

76,122 

62,559 

81,735 

104,189 

18 

19,940 

29,219 

40.267 

53,082 

67,664 

55,607 

72,653 

92,612 

20 

17,946 

26,298 

36,240 

47,774 

60,898 

50,047 

65,388 

83,351 

22 

16,314 

23,907 

32,946 

43,431 

55,361 

45,497 

59,444 

75,774 

24 

14,955 

21,915 

30,200 

39,812 

50,748 

41,706 

54,490 

69,459 

26 

13,805 

20,229 

27,877 

36,749 

46,884 

38,500 

50,298 

64,116 

28 

12,819 

18,784 

25,886 

34,124 

43,49'8 

35,748 

46,706 

59,037 

30 

11,964 

17,532 

24,160 

31,849 

40,598 

33,364 

43,592 

55,567 

32 

11,216 

16,436 

22,650 

29,859 

38,061 

31,279 

40,867 

52,095 

228     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Steel.  —  Supposing  that  a  steel  beam  were  chosen,  we  refer 
to  the  table  and  find  out  that  a  12"x40-lb.  beam  will  support 
nearly  18  tons,  and  this  is  over  our  limit.  Some  would  prefer 
two  10"  x  25-lb.  beams  bolted  together,  especially  in  cases 
where  the  ceiling  heights  were  low,  and  it  was  not  considered 
desirable  to  frame  the  joists  down  to  the  level. 

Bearing.  —  Girders  should  have  at  least  6  inches  bearing 
on  the  walls,  but  4  inches  is  enough  for  joists. 

Joists.  —  We  next  come  to  the  size  of  the  joists  required 
on  a  span  of  20  feet,  with  a  load  of  125  pounds  to  the  square 
foot. 

In  stores,  all  over  the  country,  2"  x  14"  are  used  at  12-inch 
centers  on  a  22-foot  span.  Our  span  is  2  feet  less,  and 
16-inch  centers  might  be  assumed. 

A  3x14,  according  to  the  table,  carries  2.91  tons;  and  a 
1-inch  full  size  by  14  would  thus  take  care  of  a  ton.  A  joist 
1%,  the  market  size,  on  this  basis  would  support  3,500  pounds 
of  clear  span  without  a  girder  in  the  center,  which  stores 
usually  have. 

On  a  space,  really  19  feet  after  deducting  the  wall,  which 
is  not  often  done,  by  16  inches  there  are  25.3  square  feet  at 
125  pounds  =  3,162.  A  2  x  14  set  16-inch  centers  is  therefore 
ample,  as  the  full  load  never  goes  on. 

How  would  a  2x12  work?  On  a  14-foot  span  it  carries 
1.43  tons,  full  size.  Allowing  only  1%  thick,  and  disre- 
garding the  deficiency  in  depth,  the  load  would  be  1.25  tons, 
or  2,500  pounds.  At  125  pounds  a  19-foot  span,  a  foot  wide, 
will  support  2,375  pounds.  A  2  x  12  would  be  large  enough 
set  at  12-inch  centers. 

Girder.  —  By  putting  in  the  right  kind  of  a  girder,  and  wide 
enough  bases  below  the  posts,  we  can  cut  the  span  in  half, 
and  space  the  2  x  12"  joists  at  16  inches.  Even  2  x  10's  would 
be  strong  enough,  but  such  light  sizes  are  not  used  on  good 
construction.  The  trouble  with  a  store  floor  is  that  a  car-load 
of  nails  is  apt  to  be  put  down  on  the  weakest  part  of  the 
area.  We  have  to  make  it  "  fool-proof  "  for  this  reason. 

But  all  this  is  what  some  of  our  colored  friends  \vould  call 
"powerful  good  construction."  I  once  stood  in  a  Wyoming 
town  and  watched  a  Chinese  mason  building  above  a  store 
front  with  cement  blocks  set  on  2  x  8's,  and  they  were  already 
bending.  The  endeavor  all  through  this  book  is  to  strike  a 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     229 

reasonable  medium  between  him  and  the  white  man  referred 
to  elsewhere  who  ordered  a  6-inch  column  of  2-inch  metal  for 
the  same  job. 

Wet  or  Dry.  —  Something  was  said  about  the  owner  and  his 
haste  in  getting  possession  of  the  new  building.  Perhaps  if 
he  would  read  this  part  he  would  find  out  something  about 
the  difference  between  wet  and  dry  lumber.  The  contractor 
who  takes  time  on  a  building  is  really  serving  the  owner — as 
was  set  forth. 

Dry  Lumber,  it  has  been  found  by  experiment,  is  fifty  per 
cent,  stronger  than  green  just  from  the  woods — where  most  of 
ours  is  from  in  these  days.  The  tables  of  strength  make 
allowance  for  this.  They  are  figured  to  use  only  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  breaking  load.  As  the  timbers  become  dry  they 
increase  in  strength,  but  they  shrink,  and  often  spoil  plaster 
and  finish  in  the  process.  The  largest  timbers  may  take  sev- 
eral years  to  dry  thoroughly. 

The  United  States  experiments  give  the  bending  strength  of 
long-leaf  yellow  pine  \vith  moisture  as  follows: 

Per  cent.  Per  cent, 

of  moisture  Strength  of  moisture  Strength 

33  7660  15  10900 

20  8900  10  14000 

Plaster  Cracking.  —  The  danger  from  cracking  of  the  ceil- 
ings is  not  so  great  as  some  theoretical  tables  would  have  us 
believe.  Many  schoolrooms  stretch  26  feet,  and  their  ceilings 
stand;  but  the  tables  tell  us  that  a  joist  of  even  16  inches  deep 
is  restricted  to  a  span  of  18  feet.  There  is  too  much  theory 
there. 

Joists.  —  Let  us  for  variety  allow  100  pounds  to  the  square 
foot  for  the  third  floor.  The  girder  would  support  only  28,000 
in  place  of  35,000.  If  we  allow  85  per  cent.,  the  total  weight 
is  12  tons.  A  1  x  14  carries  a  ton  on  the  span  of  14  feet,  and 
a  12  x  14,  or  two  6  x  14's,  would  easily  carry  the  load. 

The  clear  span  of  19  feet,  a  foot  wide,  has  a  load  of  1,900 
pounds.  A  joist  2x12  supports  1.43  tons  or  2,860  pounds. 
This  will  take  care  of  more  surface  than  on  12-inch  centers. 
Will  it  hold  up  the  weight  that  goes  on  the  next  standard  span 
of  16  inches?  One-third  more  surface  gives  a  total  of  2,533 
pounds.  But  the  joist  is  sure  to  be  not  more  than  1%  inches 


230     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

thick.  This  reduces  the  load  it  will  carry  to  2,500  pounds, 
which  is  just  what  is  required. 

Another  way  of  arriving  at  the  joists  is  to  take  in  the  whole 
floor.  Let  us  take  a  floor  20  x  100'  x  100  pounds  to  square  foot, 
this  to  include  everything.  The  total  load  is  200,000  pounds, 
and  85  per  cent,  of  that  is  170,000.  An  1%  x  12"  joist,  as  we 
have  seen,  supports  2,500.  Dividing  170,000  by  this  figure  we 
see  that  68  joists  carry  the  load.  In  100  feet  there  are  1,200 
inches.  We  have  67  spaces  for  68  joists.  Dividing  1,200 
inches  by  67  we  find  that  the  joists  should  be  spaced  at  18 
inches.  But  our  lumber  and  lath  are  cut  to  suit  16  inches,  and 
this  size  is  chosen.  It  gives  more  strength  than  what  is 
required. 

No  Partitions.  —  All  through,  it  will  be  noticed  that  no 
partitions  or  special  weights  of  that  kind  are  included.  These 
must  be  added  if  there  are  any.  Above  a  wide  store  floor 
provision  would  have  to  be  made  for  them,  and  that  would 
mean  stronger  joists  or  closer  centers.  But  on  the  higher 
floors  the  partitions  might  support  the  joists  midway,  and 
allow  lighter  ones.  The  whole  extra  weight  would  be  trans- 
ferred down  to  the  ones  above  the  store  when  it  came  near  the 
center  of  the  span. 

Ceiling  and  Roof  Joists.  —  These  should  be  tied  together  to 
make  a  kind  of  a  truss,  and  do  not  need  to  be  figured  in- 
dependently. A  2  x  6  ceiling  joist  and  a  2x10  roof  joist,  or 
even  a  2  x  8,  can  be  so  trussed  as  to  make  a  splendid  roof. 
Sometimes — or  rather  quite  often — 2  x  4  ceiling  joists  and 
2x6  roof  joists  are  made  to  serve.  If  plenty  of  1x4  or 
1x6  bracing  is  nailed  on,  a  strong  job  can  be  made.  This 
applies  to  a  flat  roof. 

Doubling.  —  Under  all  partitions,  at  stairs,  wide  chimneys, 
and  such  places,  the  joists  must  be  doubled.  If  a  special 
weight  comes  upon  a  timber  it  stands  to  reason  that  a  special 
strength  must  be  supplied  to  carry  it. 

Concentrated  Load.  —  If  all  the  load  comes  midway  on  the 
girder  or  joist,  allow  double  thickness.  In  other  words,  only 
half  the  load  should  be  carried. 

At  a  distance  of  14  of  the  full  span  allow  about  70  per 
cent,  of  the  safe  distributed  load.  At  %  of  the  span,  allow 
\\  of  the  full  load.  Thus,  supposing  a  beam  12  feet  long 
between  supports  carried  a  distributed  load  of  4,400  pounds, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     231 

it  would  have  only  2,200  if  all  the  load  was  put  in  the  center; 
at  3  feet  from  one  end,  3,080;  at  1  foot  6  inches  from  the  end, 
a  little  over  5,000. 

Built-up  Beam.  —  In  general,  a  beam  of  this  kind  is 
stronger  than  a  solid  one.  A  solid  beam  might  have,  or  might 
develop,  some  imperfections  that  affected  the  strength;  but  the 
different  members  of  a  built-up  beam  distribute  the  defect. 
One  plank  in  five  might  be  bad,  but  the  others  would  stand  the 
strain.  But  the  planks  must  be  well  bolted  or  spiked  together. 
The  joints  should  be  broken.  It  does  not  seem  to  matter  where 
they  come,  so  that  they  are  well  distributed.  We  used  to  make 
such  beams  continuous,  and  not  join  them  over  columns  or 
posts.  Just  as  it  does  not  matter  where  reinforced  concrete 
is  joined,  above  the  girder  or  in  the  center  of  the  span,  so  the 
built-up  beam  is  strong  enough  made  either  way — jointed  above 
the  post  or  continuous. 

Experience.  —  There  are  certain  standard  sizes  used  from 
the  one  end  of  the  land  to  the  other,  and  we  do  not  have  to 
stop  to  figure  them.  We  know  that  2  x  10  joists  are  large 
enough  for  the  ordinary  dwelling,  for  they  have  been  used  ten 
thousand  times  over  for  this  purpose;  wre  also  know  that  a 

2  x  14  may  be  used  for  store  floors  on  a  22-foot  span,  16-inch 
centers  without  a  girder,   although    12-inch  centers  are  often 
used;  and  that  with  a  girder,  2  x  12's  set  at  16  inches  will  carry 
the  load,  for  we  have  often  seen  2  x  10's  doing  it;  and  2x  14's 
have  been  put  over  26-foot  spans  of  schoolrooms  so  many  times 
at  16-inch  centers  that  we  feel  sure  we  are  safe  enough  when 

3  x  14's    are    specified;    and    smile   when   we    have   to    put   on 
3xl6's. 

Then  all  good  carpenters  know  that  doubling  or  cross 
strengthening  is  required  below  partitions;  that  all  around  a 
stair  well  there  have  to  be  two  joists;  that  the  same  is  true 
at  wide  chimneys ;  and  that  special  weights  have  to  be 
specially  provided  for.  Good  common  sense  goes  a  long  way 
in  building.  We  do  not  have  to  refer  to  tables  of  strength 
every ,  time  a  difficulty  arises.  As  noted  in  the  educational 
chapter,  there  are  two  ways  of  learning — by  book  and  by 
experience.  Knowledge  is  knowledge  and  nothing  more  or  less, 
no  matter  by  which  route  we  obtain  it. 

Warehouse  Floors.  —  These  are  sometimes  laid  with  a  fall 
to  the  outside  walls  sufficient  to  drain  off  water  in  case  of 


232     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

fire,  and  scuppers  are  placed  in  the  walls  of  each  floor  to 
allow  it  to  run  to  the  ground.  The  floor  is  put  just  a  little 
out  of  level,  say  i/8-inch  to  the  foot.  In  fires  it  is  often  said 
that  more  damage  is  done  by  water  than  by  flames. 

Theory  and  Practice.  —  I  have  seen  long  floors  with  joists, 
or  rather  girders,  they  should  be  called,  heavy  enough  to 
astonish  the  carpenters  who  are  accustomed  to  almost  any- 
thing. They  were  8  x  16's,  24-inch  centers,  on  a  22-foot  span. 
One  floor  was  for  a  machine  shop,  and  the  other  for  light 
storage. 

Now,  theory  may  say  that  such  an  arrangement  is  correct, 
but  the  experienced  men  who  laid  the  timbers  kept  up  a  run- 
ning fire  of  banter.  Why?  Well,  they  saw  that  a  railroad 
engine  could  have  been  run  over  the  floor.  The  space  between 
the  timbers  was  only  16y2  inches  at  most. 

Load.  —  The  material  was  Oregon  fir.  On  a  22-foot  span 
Kidder  gives  a  load  of  2,094  pounds  for  each  inch,  16  inches 
deep.  Cutting  off  the  94  pounds  for  deficiency  in  size,  and 
multiplying  by  7y2  we  have  a  total  load  of  15,000  pounds  on 
44  square  feet,  or  341  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  Where  there 
is  to  be  concentrated  load,  as  with  machines,  that  is  not  too 
much,  but  for  light  storage  it  is  twice  what  it  should  be.  The 
trouble  seems  to  be  with  the  tables. 

The  table  in  the  Carnegie  handbook  allows  970  pounds  per 
inch  for  16-inch  deep  on  a  22-foot  span  for  spruce.  Turning 
the  970  spruce  into  1,250  for  Oregon  fir,  and  cutting  off  the 
50  for  deficiency  in  sizes,  we  find  that  the  7%  inches  supports 
only  9,000  pounds.  It  is  too  safe.  The  carpenters  smile  even 
if  the  professors  frown. 

Extra  Precautions.  —  This  is  also  the  trouble  with  that 
excellent  book,  the  Underwriters'  code.  It  is  often  too  safe. 

The  method  given  for  calculating  the  uniformly  distributed 
load  on  floor  beams  is  to  multiply  the  area  in  square  inches 
by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  the  span  of 
the  beam  in  feet.  This  figure  is  then  multiplied  by 

70  for  hemlock 

90    for    spruce   and   white    pine 
120  for  oak 
140  for  yellow  pine. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     233 

In  round  numbers,  spruce  in  Kidder  is  1,630,  while  Oregon  fir 
is  2,100  on  a  22-foot  span.  Increasing  the  Underwriters'  factor 
of  90  for  spruce  in  the  same  proportion  we  get  116. 

The  sectional  area  of  an  8  x  16  is  128.  Multiplying  this  by 
the  depth  of  16  inches  =  2,048.  Dividing  by  the  length  of 
22  we  have  93.1.  Multiplying  this  by  116  we  get  the  per- 
missible load  of  10,800  pounds. 

Kidder  thus  gives  us..  15,000 
Carnegie's  Handbook ....  9,000 
Underwriters  10,800 

No  deduction  is  made  on  the  latter  for  deficiency  in  size 
which  would  bring  it  down  lower  than  10,000. 

The  Underwriters  give  a  simple  way  of  figuring  up  the 
strength  instead  of  the  lineal  foot  of  formulas  that  the  aver- 
age professor  needs  to  express  the  simplest  idea. 

Y.  P.  Only.  —  In  the  West,  at  least,  we  may  as  well  dis- 
regard the  other  factors,  and  deal  only  with  yellow  pine.  The 
Underwriters'  figure  should  be  increased  from  140  to  160,  which 
would  still  be  below  other  standard  tables,  but  would  make 
allowance  for  deficiency  in  size. 

Rule.  —  For  Y.  P.  multiply  the  area  of  the  section  in  square 
inches  by  the  depth  in  inches,  and  divide  this  product  by 
the  clear  span  of  the  beam  in  feet.  Then  multiply  the  result 
by  160  for  the  load  in  pounds. 

Example.  —  A  4  x  12  x  16'  in  clear  would  thus  be:  4  x  12  = 
48  x  12  =  576,  which  divided  by  16  =  36  x  160  —  distributed 
load  of  5,760  pounds. 

MILL    CONSTRUCTION 

What  It  Is.  —  The  Chicago  code  defines  "  mill  construction  " 
as  applying  to  all  buildings  in  which  all  the  girders  and 
joists  supporting  floors  and  roof  have  a  sectional  area  of  not 
less  than  72  square  inches,  and  above  the  joists  of  which  there 
is  laid  a  timber  floor  not  less  than  3%  inches  thick.  Wooden 
posts  must  not  be  less  than  100  square  inches  in  sectional  area, 
which  means  10  x  10  for  a  square  post. 

Partitions  and  elevators  have  to  be  enclosed  in  non-com- 
bustible material,  but  the  posts,  girders,  and  joists  are  left  un- 


234    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

protected.  No  wood  furring,  wood  lath,  or  stud  partitions  are 
to  be  used  in  this  kind  of  a  building. 

Slow  Burning  Construction,  on  the  contrary,  is  protected 
from  fire  as  with  metal  lath  and  heavy  coats  of  plaster.  But 
the  posts  if  of  oak  with  more  than  100  square  inches  of  area 
need  not  be  covered.  The  stairs  must  be  of  non-combustible 
material.  When  a  girder  cannot  be  easily  found  in  one  piece, 
two  may  be  used  side  by  side  and  bolted  together,  but  this  is 
not  considered  so  desirable. 

The  Underwriters'  code  defines  mill  construction  as  that  in 
which  no  structural  material  is  less  than  8  inches  either  way. 
The  floor  plank  must  not  be  less  than  3  inches,  either  splined, 
or  tongued  and  grooved.  A  spline  is  what  a  carpenter  calls 
a  slip  tongue  or  feather.  On  top  a  regular  y8-inch  floor 
would  be  placed  also  tongued,  running  the  cross  way  or 
diagonally.  Two  thicknesses  of  waterproof  material  of  some 
kind  would  be  put  between  the  floors,  and  flashed  3  inches 
up  the  posts  or  walls. 

Wood  Posts  would  not  be  less  than  100  square  inches,  nor 
less  than  10  each  wTay,  except  in  the  top  story,  which  might 
be  8"  x  8".  They  wrould  all  have  cast  iron  caps  to  serve  as  a 
base  for  the  post  above. 

Square  Edged.  —  While  tongued  and  grooved  top  flooring  is 
an  excellent  material  in  every  way,  it  seems  that  the  square- 
edged  kind  is  better  adapted  for  mills  and  manufacturing 
buildings,  not  on  account  of  safety  from  fire  which  might 
the  easier  penetrate  the  joints  from  below,  but  on  account 
of  wearing  qualities. 

Fire  Resistance.  —  The  idea  in  mill  construction  is  to  make 
the  timbers  so  large  that  the  fire,  even  if  it  gains  headway,  can 
yet  be  checked  before  it  burns  through  them,  and  the  structure 
can  then  be  easily  put  in  shape  again.  Where  there  are  many 
joists  sticking  down  from  the  ceiling  the  fire  has  a  good 
chance  to  catch,  but  where  four  or  five  joists  are  combined 
into  one  timber  at  four  or  five  times  the  distance  apart,  the 
danger  is  much  lessened.  The  floor  necessarily  being  heavier 
on  such  spans  is  also  harder  to  burn  through.  It  takes  a  fire 
a  considerable  time  to  eat  through  a  12  x  12  wood  post,  or  an 
8x16  girder.  Then  another  advantage  is  that  the  wood  does 
not  expand  and  buckle  as  iron  and  steel  do.  In  the  San 
Francisco  fire,  in  many  buildings,  and  especially  in  the  Fair- 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    235 

mount  Hotel,  the  unprotected  cast  iron  columns  failed  as 
the  result  of  unequal  expansion  caused  by  the  lugs.  One 
expert  of  the  government  said,  "  Cast  iron  columns  in  some 
buildings  endured  the  fire  fairly  well,  but  undoubtedly  would 
have  been  broken  or  shattered  if  cold  water  had  been  thrown 
upon  them  in  the  midst  of  the  great  heat.  They  should  no 
longer  be  used." 

Stairways,  Hatchways,  and  so  forth  should  be  enclosed  with 
masonry.  Every  opening  is  blocked  in  some  way  to  prevent 
the  fire  from  spreading,  sometimes  with  tinned  doors  hung 
so  as  to  cover  the  opening  when  the  fusible  link  melts. 

No  varnish  or  painting  is  allowed,  as  fire  spreads  quickly 
over  it,  and  some  of  the  manufacturers  object  to  covering  the 
surfaces  on  account  of  danger  from  dry  rot.  But  sometimes 
the  whole  interior  surface  is  covered  with  cold  water  paint, 
either  put  on  by  brush  or  a  hose  and  nozzle. 

No  wood  is  used  beyond  what  is  absolutely  necessary.  We 
have  all  seen  buildings  of  this  construction  correct  in  every- 
thing, yet  filled  in  the  inside  with  ceiling  partitions,  stair 
rails,  etc.,  that  undo  the  care  expended  on  the  main  body 
of  the  work. 

Scuppers  are  put  in  the  walls  to  take  care  of  the  water  in 
case  of  fire  or  other  cause  of  flood.  In  two  cases  that  I  know 
of,  the  automatic  sprinklers  began  to  work  through  the  night, 
and  flooded  a  drygoods  store  with  water.  Scuppers  would 
have  saved  some  of  the  loss. 

Distance.  —  The  floor  beams  in  mill  construction  are  seldom 
placed  closer  than  4-foot  centers,  and  usually  about  6-foot  or 
8-foot,  according  to  the  load.  The  following  table  gives  the 
thickness  of  flooring  to  use. 

LOADING    OF    Y.    P.    MILL    FLOORS 

Safe  loads  per  square  foot  in  pounds  uniformly  distributed. 
The  upper  load  is  for  strength. 

The   lower  load   is   for   stiffness  and   allows   a  deflection  of 
one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  per  foot  of  span. 
The  weight  of  the  floor  itself  is  included. 


236     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


Thickness 
of  Floor 

Span  in 
Feet 

Load  per 
Square  Foot 

4 

317 
167 

1% 

5 

202 

85 

6 

140 
50 

4 

827 
705 

5 

529 
361 

2% 

6 

367 
209 

7 

269 
131 

8 

206 

88 

5 

1,009 
951 

6 

700 
550 

3% 

7 

515 
346 

8 

394 
232 

9 

311 
163 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     237 


SAFE   LOADS,    IN   TONS,    UNIFORMLY   DISTRIBUTED,    FOR   WOOD   BEAMS 


"3  oS 

gX! 
-  5 

"3  % 
-o-S 
«  S 

Distance    Between    Supports,    in    Feet 

^H 

3£ 

6 

8 

10 

11 

12 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19        21        23        25        26 

Spruce 

0.50 

0.37 

0.30 

0.27 

0.25 

0.21 

0.20 

0.19 

0.18 

0.17 

For    White    Pine,     use 

2x6 

W.  Oak 

0.67 

0.50 

0.40 

0.36 

0.33 

0.29 

0.27 

0.25 

0.24 

0.22 

loads     given     for 

Y.  Pine 

0.84 

0.63 

0.50 

0.46 

0.42 

0.36 

0.33 

0.31 

0.29 

0.28 

Spruce 

Spruce 

0.89 

0.67 

0.53 

0.48 

0.44 

0.38 

0.36 

0.33 

0.31 

0.30 

0.28 

C.25 

0.23 

0.21 

2x8 

W.  Oak 

1.19 

0.89 

0.71 

0.65 

0.59 

0.51 

0.47 

0.44 

0.42 

0.40 

0.37 

0.34 

0.31 

0.28 

Y.  Pine 

1.49 

1.11 

0.89 

0.81 

0.74 

0.63 

0.59 

0.56 

0.52 

0.49 

0.47 

0.42 

0.39 

0.36 

Spruce 

1.39 

1.04 

0.83 

0.76 

0.69 

0.60 

0.56 

0.52 

0.49 

0.46 

0.44 

0.40 

0.36 

0.33 

0.32 

2x10 

W.  Oak 

1.85 

1.39 

1.11 

1.01 

0.93 

0.79 

0.74 

0.69 

0.65 

0.62 

0.58 

0.53 

0.48 

0.44 

0.43 

Y.  Pine 

2.33 

1.74 

1.39 

1.27 

1.16 

0.99 

0.93 

0.87 

0.82 

0.77 

0.73 

0.66 

0.60 

0.56 

0.53 

Spruce 

2.00 

1.50 

1.20 

1.09 

1.00 

0.86 

0.80 

0.75 

0.71 

0.67 

0.63 

0.57 

0.52 

0.48 

0.46 

2x12 

W.  Oak 

2.67 

2.00 

1.60 

1.45 

1.33 

1.14 

1.07 

1.00 

0.94 

0.89 

0.84 

0.76 

0.70 

0.64 

0.62 

Y.  Pine 

3.35 

2.50 

2.00 

1.82 

1.66 

1.43 

1.33 

1.25 

1.18 

1.11 

1.05 

0.95 

0.87 

0.80 

0.77 

Spruce 

0.75 

0.56 

0.45 

0.41 

0.37 

0.32 

0.30 

0.28 

0.26 

0.25 

0.24 

0.21 

0.20 

3x6 

W.  Oak 

1.00 

0.75 

0.60 

0.55 

0.50 

0.43 

0.40 

0.37 

0.35 

0.33 

0.32 

0.29 

0.26 

Y.  Pine 

1.26 

0.94 

0.75 

0.68 

0.62 

0.53 

0.50 

0.47 

0.44 

0.42 

0.39 

0.36 

0.33 

Spruce 

1.33 

1.00 

0.80 

0.73 

0.67 

0.57 

0.53 

0.50 

0.47 

0.44 

0.42 

0.38 

0.35 

0.32 

0.31 

3x8 

W.  Oak 

1.78 

1.33 

1.07 

0.97 

0.89 

0.76 

0.71 

0.67 

0.63 

0.59 

0.56 

0.51 

0.46 

0.43 

0.41 

Y.  Pine 

2.23 

1.67 

1.33 

1.22 

1.11 

0.95 

0.89 

0.83 

0.78 

0.74 

0.70 

0.64 

0.58 

0.53 

0.51 

Spruce 

2.08 

1.56 

1.25 

1.14 

1.04 

0.89 

0.83 

0.78 

0.74 

0.70 

0.66 

0.60 

0.55 

0.50 

0.48 

3x10 

W.  Oak 

2.78 

2.08 

1.67 

1.52 

1.39 

1.19 

1.11 

1.04 

0.98 

0.93 

0.88 

0.79 

0.72 

0.67 

0.64 

Y.  Pine 

3.49 

2.61 

2.08 

1.90 

1.73 

1.49 

1.39 

1.30 

1.22 

1.16 

1.10 

0.99 

0.91 

0.83 

0.80 

Spruce 

3.00 

2.25 

1.80 

1.64 

1.50 

1.29 

1.20 

1.13 

1.06 

1.00 

0.95 

0.86 

0.79 

0.72 

0.69 

3x12 

W.  Oak 

4.00 

3.00 

2.40 

2.18 

2.00 

1.71 

1.60 

1.50 

1.41 

1.33 

1.26 

1.14 

1.04 

0.96 

0.92 

Y.  Pine 

5.02 

3.76 

3.00 

2.73 

2.50 

2.14 

2.00 

1.88 

1.76 

1.67 

1.58 

1.43 

1.30 

1.20 

1.16 

Spruce 

4.08 

3.06 

2.45 

2.23 

2.04 

1.75 

1.63 

1.53 

1.44 

1.36 

1.22 

1.17 

1.07 

0.98 

0.94 

3x14 

W.  Oak 

5.45 

4.08 

3.27 

2.97 

2.72 

2.37 

2.18 

2.04 

1.92 

1.82 

1.72 

1.56 

1.42 

1.31 

1.25 

Y.  Pine 

6.84 

5.11 

4.08 

3.72 

3.40 

2.91 

2.72 

2.56 

2.40 

2.27 

2.15 

1.95 

1.78 

1.63 

1.57 

Spruce 

5.33 

4.00 

3.20 

2.91 

2.67 

2.29 

2.13 

2.00 

1.88 

1.78 

1.68 

1.52 

1.40 

1.28 

1.23 

3x16 

W.  Oak 

7.11 

5.33 

4.27 

3.88 

3.56 

3.05 

2.84 

2.67 

2.51 

2.37 

2.25 

2.03 

1.86 

1.71 

1.64 

Y.  Pine 

8.93 

6.68 

5.33 

4.86 

4.44 

3.80 

3.56 

3.34 

3.13 

2.97 

2.80 

2.54 

2.32 

2.13 

2.05 

Spruce 

2.78 

2.08 

1.67 

1.52 

1.39 

1.19 

1.11 

1.04 

0.98 

0.93 

0.88 

0.79 

0.72 

0.67 

0.64 

4x10 

W.  Oak 

3.70 

2.78 

2.22 

2.02 

1.85 

1.59 

1.48 

1.39 

1.31 

1.23 

1.17 

1.06 

0.97 

0.89 

0.85 

Y.  Pine 

4.65 

3.48 

2.78 

2.53 

2.31 

1.98 

1.85 

1.74 

1.63 

1.54 

1.46 

1.32 

1.21 

1.11 

1.07 

Spruce 

4.00 

3.00 

2.40 

2.18 

2.00 

1.71 

1.60 

1.50 

1.41 

1.33 

1.26 

1.14 

1.05 

0.96 

0.92 

4x12 

W.  Oak 

5.33 

4.00 

3.20 

2.91 

2.67 

2.29 

2.13 

2.00 

1.88 

1.78 

1.68 

1.52 

1.39 

1.28 

1.23 

Y.  Pine 

6.70 

5.01 

4.00 

3.65 

3.33 

2.85 

2.67 

2.50 

2.35 

2.19 

2.10 

1.91 

1.74 

1.60 

1.54 

Spruce 

5.44 

4.08 

3.27 

2.97 

2.72 

2.33 

2.18 

2.04 

1.92 

1.82 

1.72 

1.56 

1.42 

1.31 

1.25 

4x14 

W.  Oak 

7.26 

5.44 

4.36 

3.96 

3.63 

3.11 

2.90 

2.72 

2.56 

2.42 

2.29 

2.07 

1.90 

1.74 

1.68 

Y.  Pine 

9.12 

6.82 

5.44 

4.96 

4.53 

3.88 

3.63 

3.41 

3.20 

3.03 

2.86 

2.60 

2.37 

2.18 

2.10 

Spruce 

7.11 

5.33 

4.27 

3.88 

3.56 

3.05 

2.84 

2.67 

2.51 

2.37 

2.25 

2.03 

1.86 

1.71 

1.64 

4x16 

W.  Oak 

9.48 

7.11 

5.69 

5.17 

4.74 

4.06 

3.79 

3.56 

3.35 

3.16 

3.00 

2.71 

2.47 

2.28 

2.19 

Y.  Pine 

11.91 

8.90 

7.11 

6.48 

5.92 

5.07 

4.74 

4.45 

4.18 

3.95 

3.74 

3.39 

3.10 

2.84 

2.74 

Spruce 

9.00 

6.75 

5.40 

4.91 

4.50 

3.86 

3.60 

3.38 

3.18 

3.00 

2.84 

2.57 

2.35 

2.16 

2.08 

4x18 

W.  Oak 

12.00 

9.00 

7.20 

6.55 

6.00 

5.14 

4.80 

4.50 

4.24 

4.00 

3.79 

3.43 

3.13 

2.88 

2.77 

Y.  Pine 

15.10 

11.30 

9.00 

8.20 

7.49 

6.42 

6.00 

5.63 

5.29 

5.00 

4.73 

4.29 

3.92 

3.60 

3.47 

238    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Cost.  —  In  the  "  Estimator "  there  is  a  cost  table  of  mill 
construction  work  with  sizes  running  from  6x12  to  8x16,  and 
from  2-foot  up  to  8-foot  centers.  In  some  warehouses  with 
heavy  loads  joists  are  put  in  with  closer  centers  than  for  mill 
construction,  and  the  table  of  cost  is  made  out  to  suit. 

Partitions.  —  If  they  must  be  put  in  mill  construction  they 
should  be  made  of  solid  plaster  on  expanded  metal,  or  of 
plank  two  or  three  inches  thick. 

Hangers.  —  In  much  of  this  heavy  work  hangers  are  used 
entirely,  and  the  timbers  never  allowed  to  rest  directly  upon 
the  wall  or  girder. 

Ground  Floors.  —  For  floors  suitable  for  this  kind  of  mill 
and  warehouse  construction  we  used  the  following  mixture  on 
several  railroad  shops:  8  barrels  of  cinders  to  1  of  coal  tar, 
laid  6  inches  thick,  with  3"  x  4"  bedded  in  the  mixture  at 
16-inch  centers,  and  covered  with  3-inch  flooring.  This  was 
coal  tar,  and  not  water  gas  tar,  which  is  a  good  deal  cheaper. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  asphalt  is  a  better  material  to 
use  for  such  floors  than  coal  tar,  cinders,  and  wood.  The  tar 
evaporates,  and  the  substance  or  life  goes  out  of  it.  But 
asphalt  cannot  be  used  where  oil  is  dropping  on  it  all  the 
while. 

Roofs.  —  Some  of  the  insurance  men  want  plank  roofs  about 
3  inches  thick.  This  is  for  the  same  reason  that  thick  timbers 
are  used  in  mill  construction.  The  slope  recommended  is 
y2-inch  to  the  foot,  and  this  is  enough  for  gravel  and  such 
roofs. 

Slope  of  Eoofs.  —  For  flat  seam  tin,  not  less  than  y2-inch; 
for  standing  seam,  not  less  than  2  inches;  for  gravel,  not 
more  than  1  inch,  although  iy2  inches  may  be  used  if  required. 
I  have  seen  several  large  roofs  with  2  inches,  and  the  gravel 
washes  off  and  fills  the  sewers  where  they  are  connected  to  the 
downspouts. 

Wood  shingles  should  not  have  less  than  8  inches  in  12 
inches,  or  ^  pitch,  but  sometimes  only  6  inches  to  12,  or 
1/4  pitch  is  made.  This  is  too  low  in  a  rainy  climate.  When 
rooms  are  to  be  used  in  the  attic,  half  pitch  is  best.  On  a 
22-foot  span  this  would  be  11  feet. 


CHAPTER  V 

LOADS  UPON  POSTS,  COLUMNS,  LINTELS,  RODS, 
AND  ROPES 

Bridges.  —  When  serving  my  apprenticeship  the  foreman 
came  to  my  bench  one  winter  morning  and  said,  "  Do  you 
know  that  the  Tay  Bridge  has  fallen?"  That  seemed  to  be 
impossible,  yet  it  had  gone  into  the  river  with  a  trainload  of 
passengers.  It  was  a  case  of  bad  wind  bracing,  bad  material, 
and  unsafe  loading. 

In  1907  the  splendid  Quebec  Bridge  went  smash  into  the 
St.  Lawrence.  About  100  workmen  went  with  it  to  their 
death.  The  report  of  the  crash  was  heard  for  a  distance  of 
six  miles. 

As  we  think  of  such  terrible  disasters,  and  of  many  col- 
lapsed buildings,  both  of  steel  and  reinforced  concrete  con- 
struction, we  are  reminded  of  Mr.  Edison's  saying  that  we  know 
just  about  one-billionth  part  of  one  per  cent,  about  anything. 
Even  the  theories  about  poured  cement  houses  do  not  work 
out  as  they  should. 

Proverbs.  —  There  are  two  old  sayings  worth  noting.  One  is 
that  all  extremes  are  wrong;  and  the  other  that  safety  lies 
in  the  middle. 

Thick  Metal.  —  One  day  in  an  architectural  office  we  were 
interested  at  the  story  a  draftsman  told.  It  seems  that  while 
he  was  working  in  a  foundry,  a  man  from  the  wildest  part  of 
the  West  sent  in  an  order  for  a  6-inch  column  with  2-inch 
metal,  to  hold  up  a  light  store  front  that  did  not  extend  more 
than  one  story  above  the  I-beams,  if  even  so  much  as  that. 
I  think  it  was  only  for  a  cornice.  The  foundryman  laughed, 
but  had  conscience  enough  not  to  cast  it.  The  freight  would 
have  been  too  high. 

The  following  tables  are  meant  to  keep  any  man  from 
making  out  such  an  order.  The  contractor-architect  is  not 
equipped  with  the  learning  of  the  schools,  and  the  tables  will 

239 


240     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

help  him  out  of  the  worst  difficulties  of  the  structural 
part. 

Averages.  —  The  method  employed,  in  general,  in  arriving 
at  the  safe  load  for  wooden  posts  was  very  simple.  The  high- 
est table  and  the  lowest  of  unimpeachable  authorities  were 
taken,  shaken  together,  and  divided  by  two.  For  those  who 
think  that  this  is  not  exactly  a  scientific  method  it  may  be 
well  to  respectfully  call  their  attention  to  the  two  bridges 
just  spoken  of,  to  the  Darlington  steel  frame  hotel  in  New 
York  City,  to  the  reinforced  concrete  building  in  Long  Beach, 
Calif.,  both  of  which  fell;  and  to  so  many  others  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  that  it  would  take  up  too  much  space 
even  to  list  them  here.  Evidently,  whether  we  call  them 
"  artchitects,"  or  architects,  they  have  still  a  good  deal  to 
learn,  and  need  not  pretend  to  too  much  accuracy. 

Decimals.  —  Tons  are  given  in  even  figures.  Why  potter 
with  decimals  when  the  best  authorities  sometimes  differ  as 
much  as  50  per  cent,  in  their  loads? 

Posts  when  dressed  are  usually  y2-inch  less  than  the  marked 
size,  but  this  may  be  safely  neglected  when  one  standard  table 
is  made  out  for  much  more  of  a  load  than  is  allowed  here. 

SAFE  LOADS,  IN  TONS,  OF  2,000  POUNDS  FOR   SQUARE  WOOD  POSTS 
SPRUCE    OR    WHITE    PINE 


Length 

Size 

ft. 

6x6 

8x8 

10x10 

12x12 

14x14 

16x16 

8 

10 

19 

31 

47 

62 

— 

10 

9 

18 

29 

45 

60 

— 

12 

8 

17 

27 

43 

58 

76 

14 

7 

16 

26 

41 

56 

74 

16 

6 

15 

25 

39 

54 

72 

18 

— 

14 

24 

37 

52 

70 

20 

— 

12 

23 

36 

50 

68 

22 

— 

— 

22 

35 

49 

66 

24 

— 

— 

21 

34 

47 

64 

Yellow  Pine   Square   Posts 

8           13               24               39               58  80  100 

10           12               23               38               54  78  100 

12           11               22               37               52  75  100 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     241 
Yellow  Pine  Square  Posts 


14 

10 

21 

36 

50 

73 

96 

16 

9 

20 

35 

48 

71 

92 

18 

— 

19 

34 

46 

69 

88 

20 

— 

18 

33 

44 

67 

84 

22 

— 

— 

31 

42 

65 

81 

24 

— 

— 

— 

40 

63 

78 

For  Oak  and  Norway  Pine  allow  from  15  to  20  per  cent, 
less  weight  than  on  the  above  Y.  P.  list. 

Yellow  Pine  Rectangular  Posts 
Safe   loads   in  pounds   per   square   inch   for   various   values 

°f  YD- 

L  =  Length  of  post  in  inches. 

D  —  Least  side  in  inches. 


L 

L 

L 

L 

~D 

D 

D 

D 

1 

998 

11 

877 

21 

697 

32 

535 

2 

994 

12 

859 

22 

680 

34 

511 

3 

988 

13 

841 

23 

664 

36 

489 

4 

979 

14 

823 

24 

648 

38 

468 

5 

969 

15 

804 

25 

632 

40 

448 

6 

956 

16 

786 

26 

617 

42 

429 

7 

942 

17 

768 

27 

602 

44 

412 

8 

927 

18 

749 

28 

588 

46 

396 

9 

912 

19 

T32 

29 

574 

48 

381 

10 

895 

20 

714 

30 

561 

50 

367 

Method  of  using  above  table:  The  weight  is  given  in  pounds, 
and  not  in  tons,   as  the  others   are;    and  for  a   square   inch 


242    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

alone,  and  not  for  the  whole  post.  Get  the  length  of  the  post 
in  inches,  and  divide  this  by  the  least  thickness.  Thus,  a 
10  x  14  would  give  10,  and  an  8  x  12  would  give  8  for  a 
divisor.  Look  down  th^  lines  L/D  and  find  a  number  the 
same  as  the  result.  Opposite  this  will  be  found  the  per- 
missible load  per  square  inch. 

Example.  —  What  load  may  be  put  on  a  wood  post,  un- 
braced between  head  and  foot,  if  10"xl4"xl6'  long?  There 
are  192  inches  in  16  feet.  Dividing  this  by  10,  as  the  smallest 
side,  we  get  19.2.  Looking  down  the  column  for  the  nearest 
number  of  19  we  find  the  weight  of  732  pounds  per  square 
inch.  Supposing  the  post  to  be  full  size  we  multiply  140 
square  inches  by  732,  and  get  the  total  load  of  102,480  pounds, 
or  51  tons. 

Boring.  —  A  wood  post  should  be  bored  from  end  to  end,  and 
have  a  small  hole  bored  in  at  top  and  bottom  to  connect  with 
the  long  one.  This  is  to  allow  air  to  pass  through  and 
prevent  dry  rot.  About  the  time  of  this  writing  there  was  a 
wall-paper  factory  burned  in  West  34th  Street,  New  York.  It 
was  of  mill  construction,  and  the  posts  were  of  ample  size.  It 
was  only  18  years  old,  yet  dry  rot  had  eaten  the  strength  out 
of  the  14-  and  15-inch  oak  posts.  There  must  be  a  iy2-inch 
hole  from  end  to  end,  and  a  %-inch  connecting  cross  one  to  let 
air  through.  This  saves  checking  as  well  as  dry  rot. 

Fire.  —  Perhaps  the  day  of  the  wood  post  is  passing. 
Probably  we  shall  go  back  to  the  old  style  of  brick  piers 
clear  from  foundation  to  roof,  or  reinforced  concrete,  instead 
of  steel,  iron,  or  wood  supports.  One  engineer  has  preached 
against  the  interior  steel  columns  for  years. 

If  it  is  said  that  a  brick  pier  2'  x  2'  looks  too  clumsy  in 
the  center  of  a  floor,  we  might  reply  that  it  is  far  more  in 
keeping  with  the  architecture  of  a  heavy  factory  or  warehouse 
than  on  the  front  of  a  porch,  and  now  we  see  piers  of  this  size 
all  over  the  country  supporting  light  porch  cornices. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    243 


SAFE  LOADS,  IN  TONS,  FOR  HOLLOW  ROUND  CAST 
COLUMNS 


Diam 
in 
In. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Inches 

Unsupported  Length,  in  Feet 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

6 

% 

50 

43 

37 

32 

27 

7/8 

57 

50 

42 

36 

31 

7 

% 

62 

56 

49 

43 

38 

33 

% 

71 

64 

57 

49 

43 

38 

8 

% 

75 

69 

62 

56 

50 

44 

39 

7/8 

86 

79 

71 

64 

57 

50 

M 

97 

89 

81 

72 

63 

56 

50 

9 

% 

101 

94 

86 

78 

70 

63 

57 

113 

105 

97 

88 

79 

71 

64 

1% 

126 

117 

107 

97 

88 

79 

71 

10 

7/8 

116 

109 

101 

93 

85 

78 

71 

64 

130 

122 

114 

105 

96 

88 

80 

72 

1% 

145 

136 

126 

117 

107 

97 

88 

80 

1^4 

158 

149 

139 

128 

117 

107 

97 

88 

11 

147 

139 

131 

122 

113 

104 

96 

88 

80 

1% 

163 

155 

146 

136 

126 

116 

106 

97 

89 

IV* 

179 

170 

160 

149 

138 

127 

117 

107 

98 

1% 

195 

185 

174 

162 

150 

138 

127 

117 

106 

12 

1% 

181 

174 

165 

155 

145 

135 

125 

115 

106 

98 

1% 

199 

191 

181 

170 

159 

148 

137 

127 

117 

108 

1% 

217 

207 

197 

185 

173 

161 

149 

138 

127 

117 

1% 

234 

224 

212 

200 

187 

173 

161 

149 

137 

126 

13 

1% 

200 

192 

184 

174 

164 

154 

144 

134 

125 

116 

1% 

219 

211 

202 

191 

180 

169 

158 

147 

137 

127 

1% 

239 

230 

220 

208 

196 

184 

172 

160 

149 

138 

iy2 

258 

248 

237 

225 

212 

199 

186 

173 

161 

149 

14 

1% 

232 

223 

213 

202 

191 

180 

168 

157 

147 

1% 

253 

243 

232 

220 

207 

195 

183 

171 

160 

1% 

273 

263 

251 

238 

224 

211 

198 

185 

173 

1% 

293 

282 

269 

255 

241 

227 

212 

198 

185 

15 

1% 

266 

255 

243 

231 

219 

206 

194 

182 

iy2 

287 

276 

263 

250 

236 

223 

210 

197 

1% 

309 

296 

283 

268 

254 

239 

225 

211 

1% 

329 

316 

301 

286 

271 

255 

240 

225 

16 

iy2 

301 

288 

275 

262 

248 

235 

222 

1% 

323 

310 

296 

282 

267 

253 

239 

1% 

345 

331 

316 

300 

285 

270 

254 

244    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


SAFE  LOADS,  IN  TONS,  FOR  HOLLOW  SQUARE 
CAST  COLUMNS 


Side 
in 

Thick- 
ness  in 

Unsupported  Length,  in  Feet 

In. 

Inches 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

16 

18 

20 

22 

24 

6 

% 

~67 

~60 

~53 

~46 

~40 

% 

76 

68 

60 

52 

45 

7 

% 

83 

76 

69 

61 

54 

49 

% 

94 

87 

79 

70 

62 

55 

8 

% 

99 

92 

85 

78 

70 

63 

57 

7/8 

113 

106 

98 

89 

80 

72 

65 

1 

127 

119 

110 

100 

90 

81 

73 

9 

% 

131 

124 

116 

107 

99 

91 

82 

1 

148 

140 

131 

121 

112 

103 

94 

1% 

164 

155 

145 

134 

123 

113 

103 

10 

7/8 

150 

143 

135 

126 

118 

109 

100 

92 

1 

169 

161 

153 

143 

133 

123 

114 

105 

1% 

187 

179 

169 

158 

147 

136 

126 

116 

1% 

206 

196 

186 

174 

162 

150 

138 

127 

11 

i 

190 

183 

174 

165 

155 

144 

135 

125 

116 

1% 

211 

203 

193 

183 

172 

160 

150 

139 

129 

1% 

232 

223 

212 

201 

189 

177 

166 

154 

142 

1% 

251 

242 

230 

218 

205 

191 

179 

167 

157 

12 

1% 

234 

226 

217 

207 

196 

185 

174 

163 

153 

143 

1% 

258 

249 

239 

228 

216 

204 

192 

179 

167 

156 

1% 

279 

270 

260 

247 

235 

221 

208 

195 

182 

169 

iya 

301 

292 

280 

267 

253 

239 

225 

210 

197 

184 

13 

1% 

257 

250 

241 

231 

221 

210 

199 

187 

176 

165 

1% 

283 

275 

266 

255 

243 

232 

219 

206 

194 

182 

1% 

308 

299 

289 

277 

265 

250 

237 

224 

211 

198 

iy2 

332 

323 

312 

299 

286 

271 

257 

242 

228 

214 

14 

1% 

301 

292 

282 

271 

259 

247 

234 

221 

209 

1% 

328 

318 

306 

294 

281 

268 

254 

240 

227 

iy2 

354 

343 

331 

318 

304 

290 

275 

260 

245 

1% 

380 

368 

355 

341 

326 

311 

295 

279 

263 

15 

1% 

347 

336 

324 

311 

298 

284 

270 

256 

iy2 

375 

363 

350 

336 

322 

307 

292 

277 

1% 

402 

390 

376 

361 

345 

329 

313 

297 

1% 

430 

416 

401 

385 

368 

351 

334 

318 

16 

iy2 

395 

383 

369 

354 

339 

324 

310 

1% 

424 

411 

396 

380 

364 

348 

332 

1% 

453 

439 

423 

407 

389 

371 

354 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    245 


WEIGHT  OF  SQUARE  CAST  IRON  COLS  IN  LBS  PER  LF 
(Birkmire) 


•PI- 


Thickness  of  Metal  in  In 


2a  + 
2b 

« 

H 

7A    \    1 

1H 

IH 

1^ 

1M 

2 

*12 

18.6 

21.1 

23.3 

25.0 

26.4 

27.3 

28.1 

14 

22.5 

25.8 

28.7 

31.3 

33.4 

35.1 

37.5 

16 

26.4 

30.5 

34.2 

37.5 

40.4 

43.0 

46.9 

49.2 

50.0 

18 

30.3 

35.2 

39.7 

43.8 

47.4 

50.8 

56.3 

60.2     62.5 

20 

34.2 

39.8 

45.1 

50.0 

54,5 

58.6 

65.6 

71.1 

75.0 

22 

38.1 

44.5 

50.6 

56.3 

61.5 

66.4 

75.0 

82.0 

87.5 

24 

42.0 

49.2 

56.1 

62.5 

68.5 

74.2 

84.4 

93.0 

100.0 

26 

45.9 

53.9 

61.5 

68.8 

75.6 

82.0 

93.8 

103.9 

112.5 

28 

49.8 

58.6 

67.0 

75.0 

82.6 

89.8 

103.1 

114.8 

125.0 

30 

53.7 

63.3 

72.5 

81.3 

89.6 

97.7 

112.5 

125.8 

137.5 

32 

57.6 

68.0 

77.9 

87.5 

96.7 

105.5 

121.9 

136.7 

150.0 

34 

61.5 

72.7 

83.4 

93.8 

103.7 

113.3 

131.3 

147.7 

162.5 

36 

65.4 

77.3 

88.9 

100.0 

110.7 

121.1 

140.6 

158.6 

175.0 

38 

69.3 

82.0 

94.3 

106.3 

117.8 

128.9 

150.0 

169.5 

187.5 

40 

73.2 

86.7 

99.8 

112.5 

124.8 

136.7 

159.4 

180.5 

200.0 

42 

77.1 

91.4 

105.3 

118.8 

131.8 

144.5 

168.8 

191.4 

212.5 

44 

81.0 

96.1 

110.8 

125.0 

138.8 

152.3 

178.1 

202.3 

225.0 

46 

84.9 

100.8 

116.2 

131.3 

145.9 

160.2 

187.5 

213.3 

237.5 

48 

88.8 

105.5 

121.7 

137.5 

152.9 

168.0 

196.9 

224.2 

250.0 

50 

92.8 

110.2 

127.2 

143.8 

159.9 

175.8 

206.3 

235.2 

262.5 

52 

96.7 

114.8 

132.6 

150.0 

167.0 

183.6 

215.6 

246.1 

275.0 

54  1  100.6 

118.5 

138.1 

156.3 

174.0 

191.4 

225.0 

257.0 

287.5 

56 

104.5 

124.2 

143.6 

162.5 

181.0 

199.2 

234.4 

268.0 

300.0 

58 

108.4 

128.9 

149.0 

166.8 

188.1 

207.0 

243.8 

278.9 

312.5 

60 

112.3 

133.6 

154.5 

175.0 

195.1 

214.9 

253.2 

289.8 

325.0 

62 

116.2 

138.3 

160.0 

181.3 

202.1 

222.7 

262.5 

300.8 

337.5 

64 

120.1 

143.0 

165.4 

187.5 

209.2 

230.5 

271.9 

311.7 

350.0 

66 

124.0    147.7 

170.9 

193.8 

216.2 

238.3 

281.3 

322.7 

362.5 

68 

127.9 

152.3 

176.4 

200.0 

223.2 

246.1 

290.6 

333.6 

375.0 

70  ;  131.8 

157.0 

181.8 

206.3 

230.3 

253.9 

300.0 

344.5 

387.5 

72 

135.7 

161.7 

187.3 

212.5 

237.3 

261.7 

309.4 

355.5 

400.0 

74 

139.6 

166.4 

192.8 

218.8 

244.3 

269.5 

318.8 

366.4 

412.5 

76 

143.5 

171.1 

198.3 

225.0 

251.3 

277.3 

328.1 

377.3 

425.0 

78 

147.4 

175.8 

203.7 

231.3 

258.4 

285.2 

337.5 

388.3 

437.5 

80 

151.3 

180.5 

207.2 

237.5 

265.4 

293.0 

346.9 

399.2 

450.0 

*  A  and  b  =  either  side  (outside  measurement).     2a  +  2b  =  number, 
ance  has  been  made  in  above  table  for  corners  counted  twice. 


Allow- 


EX AMPLE:— What  is  the  weight  per  If  of  a  12"xl6"xl"  thick 

col? 

ANS: — 2a -|- 2b  =  24 -p  32  —  56.      Opposite    this    number,    under 

1  inch  thick  metal,  we  find  162.5,  which  is  \veight  per  ]f  in  Ibs 

for  a  col  of  this  size. 


i 

26. 

95 

8 

11 

82. 

71 

11 

1 

98. 

03 

1 

38. 

59 

9 

1 

60 

65 

11 

11 

119 

46 

1 

43. 

96 

9 

1 

78. 

40 

11 

li 

139 

.68 

1 

49 

01 

9 

11 

94 

94 

11 

11 

158 

,68 

1 

i 

53. 

76 

9 

li 

110. 

26 

11 

2 

176 

,44 

3 

45 

.96 

9 

if 

124 

36 

12 

1 

107 

.51 

1 

58 

.90 

10 

i 

88 

.23 

12 

11 

131 

.41 

1 

i 

64 

.77 

10 

11 

107 

.23 

12 

li 

154 

.10 

I 

53 

.29 

10 

li 

124 

.99 

12 

If 

175 

.53 

246    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

WEIGHT  OF  ROUND  CAST  IRON  COLUMNS 

Diam  Thickness  Weight  Diam  Thickness  Weight  Diam  Thickness  Weight 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 
8 
8  1  68.64  10  If  141.65  12  2  195.75 

RECTANGULAR  COLUMNS 

If  a  square  column  is  not  suitable  it  is  easy  to  figure  out 
one  of  a  rectangular  shape  from  the  square  column  table. 

Take  a  column,  for  illustration,  10"  x  10",  iy8"  metal  x  10' 
long.  It  is  listed  to  carry  169  tons.  Two  sides  at  10  inches  = 
20  inches,  and  two  at  7%  inches  make  15%  inches,  a  total 
length  if  spread  out  of  35%"xiy8"  thick.  For  the  same 
weight  of  169  tons  we  require  the  same  area  of  metal  put 
into  the  particular  size  wre  want  to  suit  a  store  front  or  some 
other  part  of  a  building  where  a  square  column  would  not  do. 

Example.  —  Suppose  it  has  to  be  only  7  inches  wide  on  the 
front,  what  would  be  the  other  size?  Twice  7  are  14  for 
the  front  and  back.  Taken  from  35%  this  leaves  21%  inches. 
The  half  of  this  is  10%  inches,  which  added  to  the  thickness 
of  front  and  back,  each  1%  inches  thick,  makes  13  inches. 
The  column  would  therefore  be  7"xl3". 

Example.  —  Another  method  is  to  get  the  area  of  the  metal 
on  the  end,  and  make  the  new  column  thicker  or  thinner  as 
may  be  required  to  fill  out  the  new  depth.  Take  as  before  a 
square  column  35%"xl%".  In  decimals  this  is  35.5  and 
1.125.  Multiplying  these  we  get  39.9375,  or  40  square  inches 
required.  Suppose  the  column  has  to  be  7  inches,  but  cannot 
be  more  than  11  deep  instead  of  13,  how  thick  has  the  metal 
to  be? 

The  area  has  to  be  40  square  inches,  the  outside  size  7"x  11" 
i=  77  square  inches,  and  the  difference  of  37  square  inches  must 
be  the  opening  in  the  end. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    247 

As  a  rough  and  ready  way  to  get  at  it  we  may  assume  the 
metal  to  be  1  inch  thick.  Around  the  outside  of  the  column  is 
36  inches,  but  owing  to  the  overlapping  of  the  corners  we 
should  have  only  34  square  inches  of  section.  We  can  work 
it  by  simple  proportion  thus:  If  34  square  inches  require 
1-inch  metal,  what  thickness  will  40  require?  In  the  pro- 
portion of  34  to  40.  Dividing  40  by  34  we  get  1.18  inches 
thick.  Multiplying  the  .18  by  16  to  get  it  to  16ths  of  an 
inch  we  get  2.88,  or  practically  T3ff.  The  metal  would  be  made 
ly3^  inches. 

We  can  now  reverse  the  process  and  test  this.  The  decimal 
of  T3g  inch  is  .1875.  We  have  front  and  back,  making  to- 
gether 14  inches;  and  two  sides  9T3g  inches  each,  a  total  of 
3310,  or  33%.  The  decimal  for  %  is  .625.  We  therefore 
have  a  section  of  metal  33.625  inches  long  by  a  thickness  of 
1T\  or  1.1875.  When  multiplied  these  make  39.93  square 
inches,  or  closer  to  40  than  a  foundryman  will  make  it. 


SAFE  LOADS,  IN  TONS  OF  2,000  POUNDS,  FOR  HOLLOW 
RECTANGULAR  CAST  IRON  COLUMNS 


* 

6x8  INCHES         6x10  INCHES        6x12  INCHES 

a 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

1 

1 

% 

% 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

% 

% 

1 

1% 

l>/4 

1% 

% 

% 

1 

iy« 

1% 

1% 

7 

73 

83 

92 

100 

108 

115 

86 

98 

109 

119 

129 

137 

98 

112 

125 

137 

149 

160 

8 

69 

78 

86 

94 

101 

107 

81 

92 

102 

111 

120 

128 

93 

105 

117 

129 

139 

148 

9 

64 

72 

80 

87 

93 

99 

75 

85 

95 

103 

111 

119 

87 

99 

110 

120 

129 

138 

10 

60 

67 

74 

80 

86 

91 

70 

80 

88 

96 

103 

110 

81 

92 

102 

111 

120 

128 

11 

55 

62 

69 

74 

80 

84 

66 

74 

82 

89 

95 

101 

76 

86 

95 

103 

111 

118 

12 

51 

58 

63 

69 

74 

77 

61 

69 

76 

82 

88 

93 

70 

80 

88 

96 

103 

109 

13 

48 

53 

59 

63 

67 

71 

57 

64 

70 

76 

81 

86 

66 

74 

82 

89 

95 

101 

14 

44 

49 

54 

58 

62 

66 

53 

59 

65 

70 

75 

79 

61 

69 

76 

82 

88 

93 

15 

41 

46 

50 

54 

57 

60 

49 

55 

61 

65 

69 

73 

57 

64 

70 

76 

81 

86 

16 

38 

42 

46 

50 

53 

55 

45 

51 

56 

60 

64 

67 

53 

59 

65 

71 

75 

80 

17 

35 

39 

43 

46 

49 

52 

42 

47 

52 

56 

59 

63 

49 

66 

61 

65 

70 

73 

18 

32 

37 

40 

43 

45 

48 

39 

44 

48 

52 

55 

58 

46 

51 

56 

61 

65 

68 

19 

31 

34 

37 

40 

42 

44 

37 

41 

45 

48 

51 

54 

43 

48 

52 

57 

61 

63 

20 

28 

32 

34 

37 

39 

41 

35 

38 

42 

45 

48 

50 

40 

45 

49 

53 

56 

59 

248    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


1 

8x10  INCHES                    8x12  INCHES 

fc 

c 
fl 

"S 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches       Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

s 

% 

% 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

1% 

1% 

% 

% 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

217 

1% 
244 

7 

107 

123 

138 

152 

166 

178 

191 

213 

121 

139 

156 

172 

188 

203 

8 

103 

118 

132 

146 

158 

171 

182 

203 

117 

134 

150 

166 

180 

195 

208 

233 

9 

99 

113 

126 

139 

151 

163 

173 

193 

112 

128 

144 

158 

172 

186 

198 

222 

10 

95 

108 

121 

133 

144 

155 

165 

183 

107 

122 

137 

151 

164 

177 

189 

210 

11 

90 

103 

115 

126 

136 

146 

156 

173 

102 

117 

131 

144 

156 

168 

179 

199 

12 

86 

98 

109 

119 

129 

139 

147 

163 

97 

111 

124 

136 

148 

159 

169 

188 

13 

81 

93 

103 

113 

122 

131 

139 

153 

93 

106 

118 

129 

140 

150 

160 

177 

14 

77 

88 

98 

107 

115 

123 

131 

144 

88 

100 

112 

122 

133 

142 

151 

167 

15 

73 

83 

92 

101 

109 

116 

123 

135 

83 

95 

106 

116 

125 

134 

142 

157 

16 

69 

78 

87 

95 

103 

110 

116 

127 

79 

90 

100 

109 

118 

127 

134 

148 

17 

65 

74 

82 

90 

97 

103 

109 

120 

75 

85 

95 

103 

112 

119 

126 

139 

18 

62 

70 

78 

85 

91 

97 

103 

112 

71 

80 

89 

98 

105 

113 

119 

131 

19 

59 

66 

73 

80 

86 

92 

97 

106 

67 

76 

85 

92 

100 

106 

112 

123 

20 

55 

63 

69 

76 

81 

86 

91 

99 

64 

72 

80 

87 

94 

100 

106 

116 

8x14    INCHES 


8x16    INCHES 


o 

a 

Thickness  of  Metal 

n  Inches       Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

ti 

rt 

J 

% 

% 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

% 

% 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

7 

135 

155 

174 

193 

211 

244 

275 

303 

148 

171 

192 

213 

233 

271 

306 

338 

8 

130 

149 

168 

185 

202 

234 

263 

289 

143 

165 

185 

205 

224 

260 

293 

323 

0 

125 

143 

161 

177 

193 

223 

251 

275 

138 

158 

178 

196 

214 

248 

279 

307 

10 

120 

137 

154 

169 

185 

213 

238 

261 

132 

151 

170 

188 

205 

236 

265 

291 

11 

114 

131 

146 

161 

176 

202 

225 

246 

126 

145 

162 

179 

195 

225 

252 

276 

12 

109 

124 

139 

153 

167 

191 

213 

232 

121 

138 

154 

170 

185 

213 

238 

260 

18 

104 

118 

132 

146 

158 

181 

201 

219 

115 

131 

147 

162 

176 

202 

225 

245 

14 

99 

112 

126 

138 

150 

171 

190 

206 

109 

125 

139 

153 

167 

191 

212 

231 

15 

94 

107 

119 

131 

142 

161 

179 

194 

'04 

118 

132 

145 

158 

180 

200- 

218 

16 

89 

101 

113 

124 

134 

152 

168 

182 

99 

112 

125 

138 

149 

170 

189 

205 

17 

84 

96 

107 

117 

126 

144 

159 

171 

94 

107 

119 

130 

141 

161 

178 

193 

18 

80 

91 

\01 

111 

119 

136 

149 

161 

89 

101 

.113 

123 

133 

152 

168 

181 

19 

76 

86 

96 

105 

113 

128 

141 

151 

84 

96 

107 

117 

126 

143 

158 

171 

20 

72 

81 

90 

99 

107 

121 

133 

143 

80 

91 

101 

110 

119 

135 

149 

161 

1 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     249 


? 

10x12  INCHES                  10x14  INCHES 

£ 

ts 

£. 

to 
p 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches       Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

1 

lJ/4 

1% 

1% 

2 

2y4 

2% 

2% 

7 

182 

221 

257 

291 

322 

350 

376 

4  CO 

201 

244 

285 

323 

359 

392 

422 

450 

8 

177 

215 

250 

282 

312 

339 

363 

386 

196 

238 

277 

314 

348 

379 

408 

435 

9 

172 

208 

242 

273 

301 

327 

350 

371 

190 

231 

269 

304 

336 

366 

394 

418 

10 

166 

203 

233 

263 

290 

314 

336 

356 

184 

223 

260 

293 

324 

353 

378 

402 

11 

161 

194 

225 

253 

278 

301 

322 

340 

178 

216 

250 

282 

312 

339 

363 

385 

12 

155 

187 

216 

243 

267 

288 

308 

325 

172 

208 

241 

271 

299 

325 

347 

368 

13 

149 

180 

207 

233 

255 

276 

294 

310 

166 

2001 

232 

260 

287 

311 

332 

351 

14 

143 

172 

199 

223 

244 

263 

280 

295 

159 

192 

222 

250 

274 

297 

317 

334 

15 

138 

165 

190 

213 

233 

251 

267 

280 

153 

184 

213 

239 

262 

283 

302 

818 

16 

132 

158 

182 

203 

222 

239 

254 

266 

147 

177 

204 

228 

250 

270 

287 

303 

17 

126 

151 

174 

194 

212 

227 

241 

253 

141 

169 

195 

218 

239 

257 

273^ 

288 

18 

121 

145 

166 

185 

202 

216 

229 

240 

135 

162 

186 

208 

228 

245 

260 

273 

19 

116 

138 

158 

176 

192 

206 

218 

228 

129 

155 

178 

199 

217 

233 

247 

260 

20 

111 

132 

151 

168 

183 

196 

207 

216 

124 

148 

170 

189 

207 

222 

235 

246 

21 

106 

126 

144 

160 

174 

186 

196 

205 

119 

142 

162 

181 

197 

211 

223 

234 

22 

101 

121 

138 

153 

166 

177 

187 

195 

113 

135 

155 

172 

188 

201 

213 

222 

33 

97 

115 

131 

145 

158 

168 

177 

185 

109 

129 

148 

164 

179 

191 

202 

211 

24 

93 

110 

125 

139 

150 

160 

169 

176 

104 

124 

141 

157 

170 

182 

192 

201 

25 

89 

105 

120 

132 

143 

152 

160 

167 

99 

118 

135 

150 

161 

174 

183 

191 

I 

10x16  INCHES                   10x18  INCHES 

c 

i 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches      Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

3 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

7 

220 

268 

313 

356 

396 

433 

417 

438 

238 

291 

341 

388 

433 

475 

514 

457 

8 

214 

261 

305 

346 

384 

420 

392 

410 

233 

284 

332 

378 

420 

460 

498 

423 

9 

208 

253 

295 

335 

372 

406 

367 

382 

226 

276 

322 

366 

407 

445 

480 

391 

10 

202 

245 

285 

323 

358 

391 

343 

355 

220 

267 

312 

354 

393 

429 

463 

359 

11 

195 

237 

276 

312 

345 

376 

320 

330 

213 

258 

301 

341 

378 

413 

444 

330 

12 

189 

229 

266 

300 

332 

360 

297 

306 

206 

250 

291 

329 

364 

396 

426 

303 

13 

182 

220 

256 

288 

318 

345 

277 

283 

198 

240 

280 

315 

349 

380 

408 

280 

14 

175 

212 

245 

276 

304 

330 

257 

262 

191 

231 

269 

303 

335 

363 

390 

256 

15 

169 

203 

235 

265 

291 

315 

239 

243 

184 

222 

258 

290' 

320 

347 

372 

236 

16 

162 

195 

226 

253 

278 

301 

223 

225 

177 

213 

247 

278 

306 

332 

355 

217 

17 

155 

187 

216 

242 

266 

287 

207 

209 

170 

205 

237 

266 

293 

316 

338 

201 

18 

149 

179 

207 

231 

254 

273 

193 

194 

163 

196 

227 

254 

279 

302 

322 

185 

19 

143 

172 

198 

221 

242 

260 

180 

181 

156 

188 

217 

243 

267 

288 

306 

172 

20 

137 

164 

189 

211 

231 

248 

168 

168 

150 

180 

207 

232 

254 

274 

292 

159 

21 

131 

157 

180 

201 

220 

236 

157 

157 

144 

172 

198 

222 

243 

261 

278 

148 

22 

126 

150 

172 

192 

210 

225 

147 

147 

138 

165 

190 

212 

232 

249 

264 

138 

23 

120 

144 

165 

183 

200 

214 

138 

137 

132 

158 

181 

202 

221 

237 

252 

128 

24 

115 

137 

157 

175 

191 

204 

129 

129 

126 

151 

173 

193 

211 

226 

240 

120 

25 

110 

132 

150 

167 

182 

195 

122 

121 

121 

145 

166 

185 

202 

216 

228 

112 

250     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


I 

12x14  INCHES                   12x16  INCHES 

.c 

"bfl 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches       Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

7 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2ya 

2% 

225 

275 

322 

366 

408 

447 

484 

518 

244 

299 

350 

400 

446 

490 

532 

570 

8 

221 

269 

315 

358 

399 

437 

472 

506 

240 

293 

344 

391 

437 

479 

520 

557 

9 

216 

263 

308 

350 

390 

426 

461 

493 

235 

287 

336 

383 

427 

468 

507 

543 

10 

211 

257 

301 

341 

379 

415 

448 

478 

230 

280 

328 

373 

416 

456 

493 

528 

11 

206 

251 

293 

332 

369 

403 

434 

464 

224 

273 

320 

363 

404 

443 

479 

512 

12 

201 

244 

284 

322 

358 

390 

421 

449 

218 

266 

311 

353 

393 

429 

464 

495 

13 

195 

237 

276 

313 

347 

378 

407 

433 

213 

259 

302 

343 

381 

416 

449 

479 

14 

189 

230 

268 

303 

335 

365 

393 

418 

207 

251 

293 

332 

368 

402 

433 

462 

15 

184 

223 

259 

293 

324 

352 

378 

402 

200 

244 

284 

321 

356 

388 

418 

446 

16 

178 

215 

250 

283 

312 

340 

364 

387 

194 

236 

275 

311 

344 

375 

403 

429 

17 

172 

208 

242 

273 

301 

327 

351 

372 

188 

228 

265 

300 

332 

361 

388 

413 

18 

166 

201 

233 

263 

290 

315 

337 

357 

182 

221 

256 

289 

320 

348 

373 

397 

19 

161 

194 

225 

253 

279 

303 

324 

343 

176 

213 

247 

279 

308 

335 

359 

381 

20 

155 

187 

217 

244 

269 

291 

311 

329 

170 

206 

239 

269 

297 

322 

345 

366 

21 

150 

181 

209 

235 

258 

279 

298 

316 

164 

199 

230 

259 

286 

310 

331 

351 

22 

145 

174 

201 

226 

248 

268 

286 

302 

159 

192 

222 

249 

275 

298 

318 

337 

23 

139 

168 

194 

217 

239 

258 

275 

290 

153 

185 

214 

240 

264 

286 

306 

323 

24 

134 

162 

186 

209 

229 

247 

264 

278 

147 

178 

206 

231 

254 

275 

293 

310 

25 

130 

156 

179 

201 

220 

238 

253 

267 

143 

172 

198 

222 

244 

264 

282 

298 

ID 

12x18  INCHES                 12x20  INCHES 

g 

d 

ja 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches      Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

ti 

S 

1 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

3 

7 
8 

263 
259 

323 
317 

379 
372 

433 
424 

484 
474 

533 
522 

579 
566 

622 
608 

347 
340 

408 
400 

466 

457 

522 
512 

576 
564 

626 
613 

674 
653 

720 
703 

9 

254 

310 

364 

415 

464 

509 

552 

593 

330 

392 

447 

500 

551 

589 

643 

685 

10 

248 

303 

356 

405 

452 

496 

538 

577 

326 

383 

437 

488 

537 

583 

626 

666 

11 

242 

296 

347 

395 

440 

483 

522 

560 

318 

374 

426 

475 

522 

566 

608 

646 

12 

236 

288 

337 

384 

427 

468 

507 

542 

310 

364 

414 

462 

507 

549 

589 

626 

13 

230 

280 

328 

373 

415 

454 

490 

524 

302 

354 

403 

449 

492 

532 

570 

605 

14 

224 

272 

318 

361 

402 

439 

474 

507 

294 

344 

391 

435 

476 

515 

551 

584 

15 

217 

264 

309 

350 

389 

425 

458 

489 

286 

333 

378 

421 

460 

497 

532 

563 

16 

211 

256 

299 

339 

376 

410 

442 

471 

276 

323 

366 

407 

445 

480 

512 

542 

17 

204 

248 

289 

327 

363 

395 

425 

453 

268 

312 

354 

393 

429 

463 

494 

522 

18 

198 

240 

279 

316 

350 

381 

410 

436 

259 

302 

342 

379 

414 

446 

475 

502 

19 

191 

232 

270 

305 

337 

367 

394 

419 

251 

292 

330 

366 

399 

429 

457 

482 

20 

185 

224 

260 

294 

325 

353 

379 

403 

242 

282 

319 

353 

384 

413 

439 

463 

21 

179 

216 

251 

283 

313 

340 

364 

387 

234 

272 

307 

340 

370 

397 

422 

445 

22 

173 

209 

242 

273 

301 

327 

350 

371 

226 

263 

296 

327 

356 

382 

405 

427 

23 

167 

201 

233 

203 

290 

314 

336 

356 

218 

253 

285 

315 

342 

367 

389 

409 

24 

161 

194 

225 

253 

279 

302 

323 

342 

211 

244 

275 

303 

329 

353 

374 

39S 

25 

155 

187 

217 

244 

268 

290 

310 

328 

203 

235 

265 

292 

317 

339 

359 

377 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


s 

14x16  INCHES                  14x20  INCHES 

fa 

d 

~ 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches      Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

"So 

I 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

3 

1% 

1% 

1% 

2 

2% 

2% 

2% 

3 

7 

327 

385 

440 

493 

543 

590 

635 

677 

376 

443 

508 

570 

630 

687 

741 

793 

8 

323 

379 

433 

485 

534 

580 

624 

665 

371 

437 

501 

562 

620 

676 

729 

779 

9 

318 

373 

426 

476 

524 

569 

612 

652 

365 

430 

493 

552 

609 

664 

715. 

765 

10 

312 

366 

418 

467 

514 

558 

599 

638 

359 

423 

484 

542 

598 

651 

701 

749 

11 

306 

359 

410 

458 

503 

545 

586 

623 

353 

415 

474 

531 

585 

637 

686 

732 

12 

300 

352 

401 

447 

491 

533 

571 

608 

346 

407 

465 

520 

573 

623 

670 

715 

13 

293 

344 

392 

437 

479 

519 

557 

592 

339 

398 

454 

508 

559 

608 

654 

697 

14 

287 

336 

382 

426 

467 

506 

542 

575 

331 

389 

444 

496 

546 

593 

637 

678 

15 

280 

327 

372 

415 

455 

492 

526 

559 

324 

380 

433 

484 

532. 

577 

619 

659 

16 

273 

319 

363 

404 

442 

478 

511 

542 

316 

370 

422 

471 

518 

561 

602 

640 

17 

266 

310 

353 

392 

429 

464 

496 

525 

308 

361 

411 

459 

503 

545 

585 

621 

18 

258 

302 

343 

381 

416 

450 

480 

508 

300 

351 

400 

446 

489 

529 

567 

602 

19 

251 

293 

333 

370 

404 

436 

465 

492 

292 

342 

389 

433 

475 

514 

550 

584 

20 

244 

285 

323 

358 

391 

422 

450 

476 

284 

332 

378 

421 

460 

498 

533 

565 

21 

237 

277 

313 

347 

379 

408 

435 

460 

276 

323 

367 

408 

446 

482 

516 

547 

22 

230 

268 

304 

336 

367 

395 

421 

444 

268 

314 

356 

396 

433 

467 

499 

529 

23 

223 

260 

294 

326 

355 

382 

406 

429 

261 

304 

345 

383 

419 

452 

483 

511 

24 

217 

252 

285 

315 

343 

369 

393 

414 

253 

295 

335 

372 

406 

438 

467 

494 

25 

210 

244 

276 

305 

332 

357 

379 

399 

246 

286 

324 

360 

393 

423 

451 

477 

SAFE    LOAD,    IN    TONS,    FOR    GAS    OR    STEAM    PIPE 
COLUMNS 

Standard  Pipe 


Estimated 
diameter 
Inches 

Thick 
ness 
Inches 

W't 

per 
foot 
Lbs. 

Length  in  feet 

8 
Tons 

9 

Tons 

10 

Tons 

12 

Tons 

14 
Tons 

2.8  
3.5  

0.204 
0.217 
0.22(5 
0.237 
0.247 
0.259 
0.280 
0.301 
0.322 

5.74 
7.54 
9.00 
10.66 
12.34 
14.50 
18.76 
23.37 
28.18 

5.90 
9.14 
11.02 
14.45 
16.78 
18.76 
25.06 
32.31 
36.63 

5.51 
8.75 
10.66 
14.11 
16.33 
18.76 
25.06 

32:31 

36.63 

5.21 
8.35 
10.25 
13.65 
15.88 
18.26 
25.06 
32.31 
36.63 

7.52 

9.39 
12.72 
14.90 
17.31 
24.29 
32.31 
36.63 

8.62 
11.78 
13.98 
16.26 
23.32 
31.32 
36.63 

4.0  

45 

5.0  

556  

6.62  

7.62  

8.62.. 

252     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Extra  Strong. 


28 

056 

13.68 

14.10 

13.04 

11.86 

3.5  

0.608 

18.56 

21.25 

20.12 

19.04 

16.56 

4.0  

0.642 

22.75 

27.18 

26.02 

24.86 

22.54 

19.89 

4.5  

0.682 

27.48 

35.31 

34.15 

32.84 

30.19 

27.57 

5.50 

0.75 

38.12 

52.78 

51.37 

49.94 

47.06 

44.16 

662 

0875 

53.11 

71.10 

71.10 

70.58 

66.99 

64.22 

EC 

trerae 

SAFE  LOADS,  IN  TONS  (of  2,000  Ibs.),  f  OR  STEEL  I  BEAMS 

Fibre  Stress,  16,000  Ibs.  per  Square  Inch.    Limiting  Spans,  above  which  Tabulated  Safe  Load  is 
apt  to  crack  Plastered  Ceilings,  are  indicated  by  heavy  linea. 

Size 

In 

WeigM 

per 

Fool 

DISTANCE 

BETWEEN    SUPPORTS,    IN    FEET 

6 

8 

10 

11 

12 

14 

16 

18 

19 

20 

21 

23 

25 

26 

27 

29 

30 

31 

34 

24 

100 

80 

J3.8 
I&S 

86 
-6.3 

73.7 
65.4 

64.5 
57.2 

57.3 
50.9 

54.3 
48.2 

sr.6 

45.6 

49.1 
43.6 

44.9 
39.8 

41.3 

36.6 

39.7 
35.2 

38.2 
33.9 

35.6 
31.6 

34.4 
30.5 

33.2 
29.5 

30.3 
26.9 

20 

80 
64 

70.2 
5o:5- 

64.4 
i0.9 

55.2 
43.7 

48.3 
38.2 

42.9 

34. 

40.7 
32.2 

38.6 
30.6 

36.8 
29.1 

33.0 
26.6 

30.9 
24.5 

29.7 
23.5 

28.6 
22.6 

26.7 
21.1 

25.8 
20.4 

24.9 
19.7 

22.7 
18. 

15 

HO 
60 
50 
41 

45'8 
37.6 
30.2 

50.H 
41.6 
34.2 
27.4 

6.6 
38.2 
31.4 

J9.9 

S&9 

21.6 

34.9 
28.7 
23.5 
18.9 

31M 
255 
20.9 
16.8 

<i9.4 
24.1 
19.8 
15.9 

27.9 
22.9 
18.8 
15.1 

26.6 
21.8 
17.9 
14.4 

24.3 
19.9 
16.4 
13.1 

22.4 
18.3 
15.1 
12.1 

21.5 
17.6 
14.5 
11.6 

20.7 
17. 
14. 
11.2 

19.3 
15.8 
13. 
10.4 

18.6 
15.3 
18.6 
10.1 

18. 
14.8 
12.2 
9.7 

16.4 
13.5 
11.1 
8.9 

12 

40 
3-2 

31.3 

34.7 

5 
9.8 

is' 

0.8 
6.5 

17.9 
14.1 

15.6 
12.4 

13.9 
11. 

13.2 

10.4 

12.5 
9.9- 

11,9 
9.4 

10.9 
8.6 

10. 
7.9 

9.6 

7.6 

9.3 

7.3 

8.6 
6.8 

8.3 
6.6 

8.1 
6.4 

7.4 
5.8 

10 

33 
25 

28.7 
21.7 

21.5 
16.3 

7.2 
3.1 

15.6 
11.9 

4.3 
0.9 

12.3 
9.3 

10.8 
8.2 

9.0 
7.3 

9.1 

6.9 

8.6 
6.5 

8.2 
6.2 

7.5 
5.7 

6.9 
5.2 

6.6 
5. 

6.4 
4.8 

S.9 
4.5 

5.7 
4.4 

5.6 
4.2 

•5.1 
3.8 

g 

27 
21 

21.8 
16.7 

16.4 
12.5 

3.1 

0. 

11.9 
9.1 

(1.9 
8.3 

9.4 
7.1 

8.2 

6.3 

7.3 
5.6 

6.9 
5.3 

6.5 
5. 

ti.2 
4.8 

5.7 
4.4 

5.2 

4. 

5. 

3.8 

4.9 
3.7 

4.5 
3.5 

4.4 
3.3 

4.2 
3.2 

3.9 
2.9 

8 

22. 
18 

16. 
12.8 

12 

9.6 

9.6 

7.7 

8.7 
7. 

8 
C.4 

5.5 

6. 

4.8 

5.3 
4.3 

5 
4.1 

4.8 
3.9 

4.6 
3.7 

4.2 
3.3 

3.8 
3.1 

3.7 
3. 

3.5 
2.9 

3.3 
2.7 

3.2 
2.6 

3.1 
2.5 

2.8 
2.3 

7 

20 
15 

12.6 

9.7 

9.5 

7.2 

7.6 
5.8 

6.9 

5.3 

6.3 

4.8 

5.4 
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4.7 
3.6 

4.2 
3.2 

4 
3. 

3.8 
2.9 

3.C 

2.8 

3.3 
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3. 
2.3 

2.9 
2.2 

2.8 
2.1 

2.6 
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2.5 

1.93 

2.4 
1.87 

2.2 
1.7 

6 

16 
13 

8.5 
7. 

6.4 
5.2 

5.1 
4.2 

4.6 
3.8 

4.2 
3.5 

3.6 
3. 

3.2 
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23 

2.7 
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2.5 
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S. 

2.2 
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1.9 
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5 

13 
10 

5.6 
4.4 

4.2 
3.3 

3.4 
2.7 

3 
2.4 

2.8 
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2.1 
1.7 

1.9 
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1-1 
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a 

4*1.  L«.<U  gim,  M  wifcndHwa-fd 

4 

10 

7 

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1 

\       1 

1 

SAFE  LOADS,  W  TONS  (of  2,000  Ibs.),  ON  STEEL  CHANNELS. 

Limiting  Spun,  above  which  Tabulated  Safe  Load  is  apt  to  crack  Plastered  Ceqin^  m 
indicated  by  heavy  lines. 

Sin 

In 

bete 

Mty 

foot 

DISTANCE    BETWEEN    SUPPORTS.    IN    FCET 

6 

8 

10. 

11 

12 

14 

16 

18 

u. 

20 

21 

23 

25 

86 

27 

29* 

30 

31 

84 

15 

?3- 

21* 

21.7 

19.8 

18.1 

15.5 

13.€ 

12.1 

11.5 

10.9 

10.4 

9.5 

8.7 

8.4 

8.1 

7.5 

7.3 

7. 

6.4 

** 

31.5 

84.4 

19.5 

17.7 

16.2 

13.9 

12.2 

10.8 

10.3 

9.8 

9.3 

8.5 

7.8 

7.5 

7.2 

6.7 

6.5 

6.3 

5.7 

12 

80. 

14.1 

11.3 

10.2 

9.4 

8. 

r 

C.3 

5.9 

5.6 

5.4 

4.9 

4.5 

4.3 

4.2 

3.9 

3.8 

3.6 

3.3 

10 

16.5 

12.8 

9.6 

7.7 

7. 

«.4 

5.5 

4.8 

4.3 

4.1 

3.9 

3.7 

3.4 

3.1 

2.9 

2.9 

2.7 

2.6 

2.5 

2.3 

9 

14. 

u£.7 

7.3 

5.9 

5.3 

4.9 

4.8 

3.7 

3.3 

3.1 

2.9 

2.8 

2.6 

2.3 

2.3 

2.2 

2. 

1.9J 

13 

1.7 

8 

11. 

7.1 

5.3 

4.2 

3.9 

3.6 

3. 

2.7 

2.4 

2.2 

2.1 

2'. 

1.8 

1.7 

1.6 

1.6 

1.4 

1.4. 

1.4 

1.2 

7 

9.5 

5.2 

3.9 

3.1 

2.8 

2.6 

2.2 

1.9 

1.7 

1.6 

1.6 

1.5 

1.4 

1.2 

1,2 

1.2 

1.1 

1. 

C 

8. 

3.9 

3. 

8.4 

2.2 

2. 

1.7 

1.5 

1.3 

1.2 

1.8 

J.I 

1.. 

.» 

5 

6.r> 

8.7 

8 

1.6 

1.5 

1.3 

1.1 

1. 

1° 

.8 

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4 

5.5 

1.8 

1.4 

1.1 

|. 

.!> 

,8 

.7 

3 

5. 

1.2 

.» 

.1 

,G 

,c 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     253 

BEARING    PLATES  FOB   BEAMS   OB   CHANNELS    ON    BRICK   OB   MASONRY 


Safe  bearing 

values  in  tons 

S 

.§ 

for    plate  s 

(0 

| 

ff« 

resting  on 

»£ 

'c>3 

IS 

h 

.0  0 

ij 

III 

1. 

G 
S 

.2 

'S 
ft 

| 

^ 
3 

f 

i 

1 

,0 

g 
a 

1 

f 

OQ 

m 

35 

^ 

1 

02 

d 

o 

0 

PR 

OQ 

3,  4,  5  and  6 
inches.  .  . 

f       6 
1       6 

6x  6x# 
6x   6x  % 

4.7     ) 
5.9     $ 

1.8 

2.7 

4.5 

7  and  8  in.. 

j       8 

1       8 

8x  8x  % 
8x  8x  1 

12.5     ) 
16.6     f 

3.2 

4.8 

8.0 

9  and  10  in.. 

j       8 
1       8 

8xl2x  % 
8  x  12  x  1 

19        ) 
25        f 

4.8 

7.2 

12.00 

12  in.,   31^ 

i     12 

12  x  12  x  H 

28        (. 

pounds.. 

1     12 

12  x  12  x  1 

37.5     f 

7.2 

10.8 

18.0 

12    in.,    40 

pounds.. 
15    in.,    42 
pounds... 

1" 

I    12 

12  x  16  x  1 
12  x  16  *  1J4 

62.5    J 

9.6 

14.4 

24.0 

18,  20  and  24 

inches.  .  . 

16 

16  x  18  x  IK 

94 

12.8 

19.2 

32.0 

The  above  table  is  the  same  as  the  standard  one  in  the 
Carnegie  Handbook,  but  cast  iron  plates  are  figured  as  they 
are  more  used  than  the  steel  ones.  The  thicker  plates  are 
used  for  bearing  values  exceeding  those  given  for  common 
brickwork.  The  allowances  are  100  pounds  per  square  inch 
for  common  brick;  150  for  best  brickwork;  and  250  for 
ordinary  masonry. 

SAFE    TENSILE    STRENGTH 

Weight  in  Pounds  Supported  by  Steel  Rods 

%  inch  diameter  =    4,200  pounds. 

%  inch  diameter  —  5,880  pounds. 
1  inch  diameter  =  7,696  pounds. 
1%  inch  diameter  =  8,904  pounds. 
1%  inch  diameter  =  12,474  pounds. 


254    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

1%  inch  diameter  —  14,784  pounds. 
iy2  inch  diameter  —  18,102  pounds. 
1%  inch  diameter  =  21,210  pounds. 
1%  inch  diameter  ==  24,402  pounds. 

The  washers  at  ends  of  rods  should  have  the  following 
areas  to  provide  sufficient  bearing  on  the  timbers: 

%   inch  diameter  rod  —    4.6  square  inches  area. 

%  inch  diameter  rod  =  6.5  square  inches  area. 

1  inch  diameter  rod  —  8.5  square  inches  area. 

iy8  inch  diameter  rod  =  9.9  square  inches  area. 

1%  inch  diameter  rod  —  13. 8  square  inches  area. 

1%  inch  diameter  rod  =16.5  square  inches  area. 

iy2  inch  diameter  rod  —  20.1  square  inches  area. 

1%  inch  diameter  rod  =  23.5  square  inches  area. 

1%  inch  diameter  rod  =  27.1  square  inches  area. 

Where  double  rods  are  used  the  washers  must  have  twice 
the  areas  given  above  and  be  made  of  steel  or  wrought-iron 
plates  of  sufficient  thickness  so  as  not  to  bend  or  shear. 

The  rods  in  the  above  table  are  not  upset.  This  process 
increases  the  strength  from  35  to  40  per  cent.  But  in  all 
cases  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  diameter  is  to  be  taken 
at  the  root  of  the  screw,  and  not  the  full  diameter. 

Unit  Allowances.  —  The  recommended  allowances  for  tensile 
or  "  pulling  "  strength  of  metal  per  square  inch  of  section  is 
given  by  the  Underwriters  as  follows: 

Rolled  steel    16,000  pounds. 

Cast  steel    16,000  pounds. 

Wrought  iron.  .  .    12,000  pounds. 
Cast    iron 3,000  pounds. 

This  is  on  the  basis  of  one-fourth  of  the  actual  breaking 
strength;  or  there  is  a  factor  of  safety  of  four. 

Rule.  —  To  get  the  tensile  strength  find  out  the  exact  area 
in  square  inches  on  end  of  the  rod,  or  bar  of  steel  or  iron, 
and  multiply  by  the  number  of  pounds  in  the  table.  But, 
once  again,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  size  under  the 
screw  is  the  one.  If  we  have  a  steel  bar  1"  x  1"  a  load  of 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     255 

• 

16,000  pounds  could  be  hung  to  it,  on  condition  that  the  end 
that  held  the  weight  was  of  this  exact  size. 

Example.  —  Suppose  we  have  a  steel  rod  that  measures 
exactly  1  inch  after  the  screw  is  cut  on  the  end,  to  hold  the 
nut,  how  much  can  we  hang  to  it? 

Looking  in  the  table  of  areas  of  circles  we  find  that  1  inch 
equals  .7854.  Multiplying  this  by  16,000  we  get  the  load  of 
12,566  pounds,  or  a  little  over  6  tons.  Now  we  see  how 
useful  these  simple  decimals  are. 

Example  2.  —  Take  a  bar  of  wrought  iron  %"x2i,4".  The 
decimals  are  .375  and  2.25;  the  square  inches  by  multiplying, 
.84375  or  a  little  less  than  T8^  of  a  square  inch.  Multiplying 
this  by  12,000  we  get  10,125  pounds.  If  the  bar  is  so  treated 
as  to  give  the  full  bearing  at  the  end  this  is  the  allowed  load. 

Gallery.  —  Suppose  a  gallery  8  feet  wide  extending  around  a 
building,  with  trusses  12-foot  centers,  and  that  the  weight  is 
hung  to  them.  Half  the  width  rests  on  the  wall,  and  the  other 
half  on  the  trusses.  We  have  thus  a  space  of  12'  x  4'  hung 
from  each  truss.  Let  us  put  the  load  at  120  pounds,  to 
include  everything.  This  gives  a  total  load  of  5,760  pounds. 

What  section  is  needed  for  this  weight?  It  is  a  problem 
for  simple  proportion.  If  16,000  requires  1  square  inch, 
how  much  will  5,760  need?  Less,  as  a  matter  of  course. 
Dividing  5,760  by  16,000  we  get  .36  square  inches.  In  the 
table  of  areas  of  circles  the  nearest  figure  to  this  is  .38485. 
Cutting  off  the  useless  "  mills "  and  leaving  only  cents  we 
have  .38,  which  is  a  trifle  larger  than  we  require,  and  there- 
fore safe.  Looking  to  the  diameter  column  we  find  that  a 
circle  containing  this  area  must  have  a  diameter  of  .7,  or  T7^ 
of  an  inch.  We  do  not  usually  figure  by  tenths  of  an  inch 
in  building,  although  engineers  do  in  their  business,  and  we 
must  reduce  to  16ths.  Multiplying  7  by  16  we  get  11.2,  or 
\l  and  -fa  of  a  y1^.  Under  the  root  of  the  screw  we  therefore 
require  fully  ^|.  A  %  rod  would  give  plenty  of  depth  for 
cutting  the  screw.  The  difference  in  cost  is  so  slight  that  an 
architect  would  use  a  1-inch  or  even  a  1%-inch  rod. 

Good  Rule.  —  A  good  rule  to  memorize  is  that  which  tells 
us  that  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  square  of  their 
diameters.  Take  3  rods,  %  inches,  %  inches,  and  1  inch. 
Reducing  to  eighths  of  an  inch  we  have  6,  7,  and  8.  The 
square  of  6  is  36;  of  7,  is  49;  of  8,  is  64.  The  area  on  the 


256     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


end  of  a  %-inch  rod  is  just  a  little  over  half  that  on  one 
an  inch  in  diameter.  Increasing  y8  inch  thus  gives  more 
strength  than  some  would  think. 

Upsetting.  —  The  cutting  of  the  screw  really  makes  a  rod 
1  inch  in  diameter  just  a  trifle  over  £f.  So  far  as  strength 
goes,  then,  we  have  to  figure  on  a  ^|  rod,  although  we  use 
1-inch  material.  To  get  over  this  the  ends  of  rods  are  upset 
or  hammered  to  a  larger  size  than  the  body.  But  this  re- 
duces the  strength,  and  with  a  1-inch  rod  it  would  not  be 
sufficient  to  upset  it  to  give  room  for  screw  cutting  only. 
More  has  to  be  allowed,  to  get  the  full  strength  of  the  main 
part.  This  increases  the  strength  about  40  per  cent,  if  it  is 
well  done. 

HOPES 

Wire  Ropes.  —  Roebling  uses  a  load  of  only  |  to  ^  of  the 
ultimate  strength.  Use  large  sheaves.  The  wear  increases 

TRANSMISSION    AND     HOISTING     ROPES     WITH     NINETEEN 
WIRES  TO  THE  STRAND.— IRON 


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1 

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7.80 

74 

15 

15  1/, 

8 

2 

6 

2 

6.02 

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13 

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11 

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4 

5 

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4.10 

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12 

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3.10 

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7 

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4V£ 

6 

4 

2.44 

27 

5% 

91/2 

4 

7 

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1.95 

20 

4 

8 

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8 

3% 

1 

1.50 

16 

3 

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10 

0.83 

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2 

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0.65 

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0.35 

3.48 

% 

3% 

iy2 

with  the  speed,  and  thus  it  is  better  to  increase  the  load  than 
the   speed.     Do  not   use  galvanized  wire.     When   the   surface 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     257 

wears  off  the  rust  gets  at  the  iron.  Do  not  coil  like  a  hemp 
rope.  If  coiling  is  done  it  should  be  in  a  large  circle. 

A  cheaper  rope  is  used  for  guys  than  for  hoisting.  The 
one  has  19  strands  and  the  other  only  7. 

Manila  rope  is  stronger  than  sisal.  The  proportion  is  about 
7  to  5.  For  manila  %  inch  in  diameter  the  breaking  load  is 
2,700  pounds;  for  %  inch,  4,500;  for  1  inch,  6,200;  lys,  8,600; 
114  inch,  11,600.  Wise  contractors  see  if  the  ropes  they  are 
using  are  not  old,  and  do  not  load  up  to  the  breaking  point. 

CAST  IRON 

The  Underwriters'  test  is  that  sample  bars  5'  x  1"  x  1",  cast 
in  sand  molds,  placed  on  supports  4  feet  6  inches  apart,  shall 
bear  a  central  load  of  450  pounds  before  breaking.  Without 
experimenting  one  would  be  inclined  to  say  that  a  bar  of  that 
kind  which  supported  4%  kegs  of  nails  must  be  of  extra 
good  material. 

Tables  are  given  elsewhere  for  the  bearing  power  of  square 
and  round  hollow  cast  iron  columns.  We  have  to  consider 
here  their  bases,  connections,  and  some  special  requirements. 

Sizes.  —  The  Underwriters  recommend,  to  begin  with,  that 
cast  iron  columns  shall  have  a  diameter  of  not  less  than  5 
inches,  and  a  shell  of  not  less  than  %  inches  thick.  It  is 
risky  to  cast  a  column  of  a  less  thickness.  The  core  some- 
times shifts,  the  metal  runs  to  one  side,  and  in  a  %-inch 
column  it  might  be  only  ^-inch  thick.  An  architect  cannot 
safely  figure  on  such  a  column.  There  is  too  much  difference 
between  it  and  the  2-irich  one  already  referred  to. 

Dangers.  —  As  noted,  one  of  the  government  experts  at  S'an 
Francisco  said  that  we  should  stop  using  cast  iron  columns. 
Jones  and  Laughlin  say  that  they  are  easily  broken  by  a  side 
blow,  but  they  manufacture  the  other  kind. 

Those  who  have  handled  them  know  that  they  are  rigid  and 
unyielding.  You  can  do  something  with  a  bent  lug  on  a 
wrought  iron  column,  but  one  of  cast  iron  must  stand  as  it 
comes  from  the  foundry.  Yet  with  all  the  acknowledged  dis- 
advantages of  these  columns  Kidder  thinks  they  are  about  as 
good  as  the  steel  ones. 

Length.  —  The  second  requirement  of  the  Underwriters' 
code  is  that  cast  iron  columns  shall  not  have  an  unsupported 


258     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

length  of  more  than  20  times  their  least  diameter,  or  size. 
Kidder  allows  36  times;  Chicago  24.  Once  again,  the  authori- 
ties differ  radically. 

Thickness.  —  The  third  structural  requirement  is  that  all 
lugs,  flanges,  seats,  brackets,  and  other  members  shall  finish 
at  least  1  inch  thick. 

Other  requirements  are  wide  enough  flanges  to  bolt  the  one 
column  to  the  other  with  %-inch  bolts,  and  a  1^-inch  cast 
iron  smooth-planed,  or  %-inch  mild  steel,  plate  to  go  between 
the  two  columns. 

Diameter.  —  The  smallest  diameter  of  a  cast  iron  column, 
according  to  the  Underwriters,  should  be  5  inches.  The  two 
stories  on  top  of  a  building  might  have  this  size,  then  for 
every  two  below,  the  diameter  should  be  increased  not  less 
than  1  inch. 

Thickness.  —  The  metal  should  not  be  less  than  T^  of  the 
greatest  lateral  dimension  of  cross  section.  In  no  case  should 
it  be  less  than  %-inch  thick. 

Safe  Loads  for  Columns.  —  In  general,  a  cast  iron  column 
for  short  lengths,  not  exceeding  seven  times  the  diameter  or 
breadth,  will  support  6  tons  to  the  square  inch:  for  longer 
lengths,  from  5  to  3  tons. 

Example.  —  Take  a  column  8  inches  in  diameter  with  %-inch 
metal.  We  have  first  of  all  to  get  the  area  of  the  metal  in 
square  inches  to  see  how  much  it  will  support.  Turning  to 
the  table  of  areas  of  circles  we  find  that  an  8-inch  equals 
50.26.  With  %-inch  metal  on  each  side  the  core  must  be 
6y2  inches.  This  is,  in  decimals,  6.5  inches.  If  there  is  no 
such  figure  given  in  the  areas  of  circles  take  65.  The  area  of 
this  is  331.83,  or  practically,  332.  Dividing  by  10  gives  the 
required  area  for  6.5.  This  is  33.2,  which,  subtracted  from 
50.26,  gives  a  remainder  of  close  to  17  square  inches.  The 
method,  as  will  be  seen,  is  to  get  the  area  of  the  two  circles 
and  subtract  the  one  from  the  other. 

At  6  tons  to  the  square  inch  the  load  would  be  102.  In 
the  table  for  cast  iron  columns  at  8  feet  long  the  weight  is 
given  as  101,  running  less  or  more,  according  to  length. 

With  rectangular  columns  the  same  method  is  followed. 
Get  the  area  over  the  metal,  and  inside  of  it,  and  subtract  the 
one  from  the  other  to  see  how  many  square  inches  there  are 
left  for  iron. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    259 

CAST    LINTELS 

Cheapness  has  to  cut  some  figure  in  building  as  in  every- 
thing else.  If  we  can  get  a  score  of  lintels  at  2%  cents  a 
pound  to  span  certain  openings  with  perfect  safety  we  are  not 
going  to  pay  3%.  This  is  one  reason  why  cast  iron  lintels  are 
used  instead  of  steel  ones,  although  this  metal  is  not  well 
adapted  to  stand  such  strains  as  come  upon  an  opening.  But 
narrow  openings  arch  themselves  by  the  pressure  of  the 
masonry  after  it  is  built  a  few  feet  up.  For  such  openings 
cast  iron  is  much  used. 

Width.  —  The  Underwriters'  code  limits  the  width  of  an 
opening  at  8  feet  for  a  cast  iron  lintel,  and  this  for  a  uni- 
formly distributed  load.  No  part  of  the  metal  should  be  less 
than  %-inch. 

Shapes.  —  Cast  iron  lintels  are  made  in  various  shapes,  but 
the  shape  in  ordinary  use  is  like  the  capital  letter  T  turned 
upside  down.  The  L  shape  comes  next,  but  most  architects 
now  employ  the  rolled  steel  lintels  for  this  design.  Webs  and 
brackets  are  cast  on  the  lintels  that  have  to  carry  the  heaviest 
load. 


260     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


SAFE  LOADS,  IN  TONS  OF  2,000  POUNDS,  FOR  CAST 
IRON  LINTELS. 

NOTB.— Compiled  by  Vierling  Steel  Works,  of  Chicago  and  Omaha. 


1 

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Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches, 

•o 

% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

2 

6.9 

9.0 

9.7 

11.8 

12.7 

16.4 

16.0 

20.5 

3 

4.6 

6.0 

6.4 

7.9 

8.4 

11.0 

10.7 

13.6 

4 

3.5 

4.5 

4.8 

5.9 

6.4 

8.2 

8.0 

10.2 

5 

2.8 

3.6 

3.9 

4.7 

5.1 

6.6 

6.4 

8.2 

6 

2.3 

3.0 

3.2 

3.9 

4.3 

5.5 

5.3 

6.8 

7 

2.0 

2.6 

2.8 

3.4 

3.6 

4.7 

4.6 

5.8 

8 

1.7 

2.3 

2.4 

3.0 

3.2 

4.1 

4.0 

5.1 

9 

1.5 

2.0 

2.1 

2.6 

2.8 

3.7 

3.6 

4.5 

10 

1.4 

1.8 

1.9 

2.4 

2.5 

3.3 

3.2 

5.0 

3 

u. 

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£ 

Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

2 

8.9 

11.5 

14.1 

17.1 

17.1 

22.2 

22.0 

27.7 

3 

5.9 

7.6 

9.4 

11.4 

11.4 

14.8 

14.6 

18.4 

4 

4.4 

5.7 

7.0 

8.5 

8.5 

11.1 

11.0 

13.8 

5 

3.6 

4.6 

5,6 

6.8 

6.8 

8.9 

8.8 

11.1 

6 

3.0 

3.8 

4.7 

5.7 

5.7 

7.4 

7.3 

9.2 

7 

2.5 

3.3 

4.0 

4.9 

4.9 

6.3 

6.3 

7.9 

8 

2.2 

2.9 

3.5 

4.3 

4.3 

5.5 

5.0 

6.9 

9 

2.0 

2.5 

3.1 

3.8 

3.8 

4.9 

4.9 

6.1 

10 

1.8 

2.3 

2.8 

3.4 

3.4 

4.4 

4.4 

5.5 

If  load  is  concentrated  in  center,  use  one-half  above  loads. 
Above  tables  are  based  on  one-eighth  the  breaking  weight 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     261 


NOTE.— Compiled  by  Vierling  Steel  Works,  of  Chicago  and  Omaha. 


I 

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Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

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% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

2 

9.3 

11.2 

11.9 

15.5 

16.7 

19.9 

19.3 

25.3 

3 

6.2 

7.4 

7.9 

10.3 

11.1 

13.3 

12.9 

16.9 

4 

4.6 

5.6 

6.0 

7.7 

8.3 

10.0 

9.7 

12.7 

5 

3.7 

4.5 

4.8 

6.2 

6.7 

8.0 

7.7 

10.1 

6 

3.1 

3.7 

4.0 

5.2 

5.6 

6.6 

6.4 

8.4 

7 

2.6 

3.2 

3.4 

4.4 

4.8 

5.7 

5.5 

7.2 

8 

2.3 

2.8 

3.0 

3.9 

4.2 

4.9 

4.8 

6.3 

9 

2.1 

2.5 

2.6 

3.4 

3.7 

4.4 

4.3 

5.6 

10 

1.9 

2.2 

2.4 

3.1 

3.3 

3.9 

3.9 

5.1    1 

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Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches                                || 

•i 

% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

% 

1 

2 

12.8 

14.9 

15.8 

19.1 

20.4 

26.3 

24.9 

33.3 

3 

8.5 

9.9 

10.6 

12.7 

13.6 

17.5 

16.6 

22.1 

4 

6.4 

7.4 

7.9 

9.6 

10.2 

13.2 

12.4 

16.6 

5 

5.1 

6.0 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

10.2 

9.9 

13.3 

6 

4.3 

5.0 

5.3 

6.4 

6.8 

9.6 

8.3 

11.1 

7 

3.7 

4.3 

4.5 

5.5 

5.8 

7.5 

7.1 

9.5 

8 

3.2 

3.7 

4.0 

4.8 

5.1 

6.6 

6.2 

8.3 

9 

2.8 

3.3 

3.5 

4.2 

4.5 

5.8 

5.5 

7.4 

10 

2.6 

3.0 

3.2 

3.8 

4.1 

5.3 

5.0 

6.6 

If  load  is  concentrated  in  center,  use  one-half  above  loads. 
Above  tables  are  based  on  one-eighth  the  breaking  weight. 


262     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


NOTE.— Compiled  by  Vierling  Steel  Works,  of  Chicago  and  Omaha. 


Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inch.es 


1 


1 


1 


15.1 

10.1 

7.6 

C.I 

5.0 
4.3 
3.8 
3.4 
3.0 


V    '7 

2.5 


18.4 

12.2 

9.2 

7.3 

6.1 
5.2 
4.6 
4.1 
3.7 

3.3 
3.1 


19.5 

13.0 

9.7 

7.8 

6.5 
5.6 
4.9 
4.3 
3.9 

3.5 
3.2 


24.6 

16.4 

12.3 

9.9 

8.2 
7.0 
6.2 
5.5 
4.9 

4.5 
4.1 


25.7 
17.1 
12.8 
10.3 

8.6 
7.3 
6.4 
5.7 

5.1 

4.7 
4.3 


32.2 
21.4 
16.1 
12.9 

10.7 
9.2 
8.0 
7.1 
6.4 

5.8 
5.4 


31.4 
20.9 
15.7 
12.6 

10.5 
9.0 
7.8 
7.0 
6.3 

5.7 
5.2 


41.6 

27.7 
20.8 
16.6 

13.7 

11.9 

10.4 

9.2 

8.3 

7.6 
6.9 


' 20" 


Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 


1 


17.2 

11.5 

8.6 

6.9 

5.7 
4.9 
4.3 
3.8 
3.4 

3.1 
2.9 


21.0 

14.0 

10.5 

8.4 

7.0 
6.0 
5.2 

4.7 
4.2 

3.8 
3.5 


22.9 

15.3 

11.5 

9.2 

7.6 
6.5 
5.7 
5.1 

4.6 

4.2 
3.8 


29.5 
19.3 
14.7 
11.8 

9.8 
8.4 
7.3 
6.6 
5.9 

5.4 
4.9 


30.3 
20.2 
15.1 
12.1 

10.1 

8.7 
7.6 
6.7 
6.1 

5.5 
5.0 


37.8 
25.2 
18.9 
15.1 

12.6 

10.8 

9.5 

8.4 

7.6 

6.9 
6.3 


36.6 
24.4 
18.3 
14.6 

12.2 

10.5 

9.1 

8.2 
7.3 

6.6 
6.1 


48.2 
32.2 
24.1 
19.3 

16.1 
13.8 
12.1 
10.7 
9.6 

8.8 
8.0 


If  load  is  concentrated  in  center,  u?e  one-half  above  loads. 
Above  tables  are  based  on  one-eighth  the  breaking  weight. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     263 


NOTE.— Compiled  by  Vierling  Steel  Works,  of  Chicago  and  Omaha. 


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i 

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1 

X 

1 

X 

1 

X 

1 

2 

14.2 

15.8 

18.1 

23.1 

23.7 

30.6 

29.1 

37.5 

3 

9.4 

10.6 

12.0 

15.4 

15.8 

20.4- 

19.4 

25.0 

4 

7.1 

7.9 

9.0 

11.5 

11.9 

15.3 

14.6 

18.7 

5 

5.7 

6.3 

7.2 

9.2 

9.5 

12.2 

11.5 

15.0 

6 

4.7 

5.3 

6.0 

7.7 

7.9 

10.2 

9.7 

12.5 

7 

4.0 

4.5 

5.2 

6.6 

6.8 

8.7 

8.3 

10.8 

8 

3.5 

4.0 

4.5 

5.8 

5.9 

7.6 

7.3 

9.4 

9 

3.1 

3.5 

4.0 

5.1 

5.3 

6.8 

6.5 

7.8 

10 

2.8 

3.2 

3.6 

4.6 

4.7 

6.1 

5.8 

7.5 

11 

2.6 

2.9 

3.3 

4,2 

4.3 

5.6 

5.3 

6.8 

12 

2.4 

2.6 

3.0 

3.8 

3.9 

5.1 

4.8 

6.2 

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Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 

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5 

X 

1 

X 

1 

% 

1 

X 

1 

2 

17.4 

19.5 

22.1 

27.8 

28.4 

36.6 

35.5 

45.7 

3 

11.7 

13.0 

14.7 

18.5 

18.9 

24.4 

23.7 

30.4 

4 

8.7 

9.8 

11.1 

13.9 

14.2 

18.3 

17.8 

22.9 

5 

7.0 

7.8 

8.8 

11.1 

11,3 

14.6 

14.2 

1.8.3 

6 

5.8 

6.5 

7.4 

9.3 

9.4 

12.2 

11.8 

15.2 

7 

5.0 

5.6 

6.3 

7.9 

8.1 

10.5 

10.1 

13.0 

8 

4.4 

4.9 

5.5 

6.9 

7.1 

9.1 

8.9 

11.4 

9 

8.9 

4.3 

4.8 

6.2 

6.3 

8.1 

7.9 

10.1 

10 

3.5 

3.9 

4.4 

5.6 

5.7 

7.3 

7.1 

9.1 

11 

3.2 

3.6 

4.0 

5.0 

5.2 

6.7 

6.5 

8.3 

12 

2.9 

3.3 

3.7 

4.6 

4.8 

6.1 

5.9 

7.6 

If  load  is  concentrated  in  center,  use  one-half  above  loads. 
Above  tables  are  based  on  one-eighth  the  breaking  weight. 


264:     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


NOTE.— Compiled  by  Vierling  Steel  Works,  of  Chicago  and  Omaha. 


20"  ---  f 


ZLLLt 

<  ---  20"-  ---  *• 


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20"  ___  >> 


Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 


1 


1 


2 
3 

4 
5 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 

11 
12 


26.1 
17.4 
13.0 
10.4 

8.7 
7.5 
6.5 
5.8 
5.2 

4.7 
4.2 


32.6 
21.7 
16.3 
13.0 

10.9 
9.3 
8.2 
7.2 
6.6 

5.9 
5.4 


33.6 
22.4 
16.8 
13.4 

11.2 
9.6 

8.4 
7.5 
6.7 

6.1 
5.6 


42.2 
28.1 
21.1 
16.9 

14,1 

12.0 

10.5 

9.4 

8.4 

7.7 
7.0 


41.5 

27.7 
20.8 
16.6 

13.8 
11.9 

10.4 
9.4 
8.3 

7.5 
6.9 


53.8 
35.9 
26.9 
21.5 

17.9 
15.4 
13.4 
12.0 
10.8 

9.8 
9.0 


52.1 
34.8 
26.1 
20.9 

17.4 
14.9 
13.0 
11.6 
10.4 

9.5 

8.7 


63.6 
42.4 
31.9 
25.5 

21.2 
18.2 
15.9 
14.1 
12.7 

11.6 
10.6 


'  •  ' 


24"-  --  s» 


24"  -----  » 


Thickness  of  Metal  in  Inches 


M 


1 


M 


2 

3 
4 
5 

6 

7 
8 
9 
10 

11 
12 


29.8 
19.8 
14.9 
11.9 

9.9 
8.5 
7.5 
6.6 
6.0 

5.4 
5.0 


37.0 
24.7 
17.2 

14.8 

12.3 

10.6 

9.2 

8.2 

7.4 

6.7 
6.2 


37.8 
25.2 
18.9 
15.1 

12.6 

10.8 

9.5 

8.4 

7.6 

6.9 
6.3 


48.8 
32.5 
24.4 
19.5 

16.3 
13.9 
12.2 

10.8 
9.8 

8.9 

8.1 


47.5 
31.7 
23.7 
19.0 

15.8 
13.6 
11.9 
10.5 
9.5 

8.6 

7.9 


G1.3 
40.8 
30.6 
24.5 

20.4 
17.5 
15.3 
13.6 
12,2 

11.1 
10.2 


59.1 
39.4 
29.6 
23.6 

19.7 
16.9 
14.8 
13.1 
11.8 

10.7 

9.8 


79.1 
49.4 
37.0 
29.6 

24.7 
21.2 
18.5 
16.5 
14.8 

13.5 
12.3 


If  load  is  concentrated  in  center,  use  one-half  above  loads. 
Above  tables  are  based  on  one-eighth  the  breaking  weight. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    265 

BASE    PLATES 

Size.  —  The  size  of  the  base  plate  for  a  column  depends 
upon  the  material  upon  which  it  rests.  If  brick  in  lime 
mortar  will  carry  8  tons  to  the  square  foot,  and  hard  brick 
in  Portland  cement,  15,  this  means  that  the  plate  in  the  one 
case  may  be  a  good  deal  smaller  than  in  the  other. 

Example.  —  Take  a  column  supporting  a  floor  load  of  125 
pounds  to  the  square  foot.  Let  the  area  extend  8  feet  from 
the  column  on  all  sides,  giving  a  square  of  16'  x  16'.  Assume 
that  there  are  three  floors. 

Three  floors,  256  sq.  ft.  x  125  Ibs.  x  3  =  192,000  pounds 

Roof,    256  x  50    Ibs —  12,800 

Columns  and  base  plate  about   4,200        " 

Live  load  20  per  cent,  on  floors  only.  .  38,400        " 


247,400       " 

This  is  124  tons.  If  we  use  a  concrete  base,  what  area  is 
required?  From  12  to  15  tons  are  allowed  in  the  codes  for 
Portland  cement.  At  12.4  tons  we  should  need  a  plate  with 
10  square  feet.  Referring  to  the  table  of  squares  to  get  the 
square  root  of  10,  we  find  3.16.  Multiplying  the  .16  by  12 
to  bring  it  to  inches  we  get  1.92  or  nearly  2  inches.  The  plate 
would  thus  be  3'  2"  x  3'  2".  As  all  the  load  would  never  be 
put  on  at  one  time  a  smaller  size  would  be  sufficient.  A  load- 
ing of  85  per  cent,  of  the  total  would  reduce  it  to  106  tons. 
At  15  tons  this  would  require  a  base  of  only  7  square  feet, 
or  2.65—2  feet  8  inches. 

A  good  deal  depends  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the  building 
is  to  be  used.  The  total  load  in  the  above  example  is  150 
pounds  to  the  square  foot,  and  this  would  seldom  be  put  on 
in  any  ordinary  structure.  On  the  other  hand,  some  buildings 
might  have  machines  concentrated  on  a  certain  column,  and 
cause  overloaded  floors. 

Sugar.  —  I  went  one  day  into  a  light  manufacturing  build- 
ing with  light  joists,  and  found  it  loaded  with  sugar.  The 
girders  were  bending  under  the  load,  and  things  looked  as  if 
someone  had  made  a ,  poor  design.  I  asked  why  the  posts 
were  so  far  apart,  and  was  told  that  the  owner  had  left  out 
each  alternate  one  to  save  expense.  The  architect  was  not 


266     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

to  blame.  So  you  can  never  tell  how  a  building  is  to  be 
loaded,  and  it  is  best  to  be  safe  with  base  plates. 

All  base  plates  have  to  be  reinforced  with  ribs  according 
to  the  standard  rules. 

Standards.  —  The  contractor,  whom  we  are  always  keeping 
in  mind  throughout,  would  not  make  details  for  such  work 
as  column  connections,  caps,  bolsters,  and  base  plates,  but 
would  order  standard  patterns  and  connections.  The  diameter 
of  the  columns  would  be  given,  thickness  of  the  metal  for  all 
parts  of  the  work,  sizes  of  bearing  plates,  base  plates,  and  so 
on.  Any  foundryman  will  show  just  what  his  ordinary  pat- 
terns are,  and  when  no  lugs  or  such  small  members  are  to  be 
less  than  1  inch  metal,  and  columns  themselves  are  specified 
there  is  the  certainty  of  safe  castings. 

Catalogs. — All  kinds  of  catalogs  containing  valuable  in- 
formation on  post  caps,  bases,  girder  and  joist  hangers,  and 
such  structural  work  may  be  had  free.  The  trade  journals 
contain  advertisements  from  the  various  manufacturers  of 
specialties.  There  is  no  use  wasting  time  making  details  of 
work  that  is  on  the  market  for  sale  just  as  sugar  is.  I  have 
often  seen  draftsmen  making  details  of  four-panel  doors.  The 
warehouses  are  full  of  these  doors.  Why  draw  a  picture  of 
what  is  already  made?  Artists  do  that. 


CHAPTER  VI 
CONCRETE  FORMS  AND  WORK 

Cement.  —  When  the  production  of  Portland  cement  rises  in 
round  numbers  from  12,700,000  barrels  in  1901  to  64,200,000  in 
1910,  it  means  that  concrete  construction  is  coming  into  its 
own  as  never  before.  In  1882  the  manufacturers  of  the  United 
States  turned  out  only  85,000  barrels. 

Stability.  —  One  of  the  government  experts  said  in  his  report 
of  the  San  Francisco  fire,  "  Wooden  buildings  stood  well,  and 
reinforced  concrete  buildings  sustained  practically  no  damage." 
This  is  a  strong  point  in  their  favor  in  earthquake  countries. 

Costs.  —  In  "  The  New  Building  Estimator  "  complete  de- 
tailed costs  of  everything  in  connection  with  these  buildings 
are  given  from  the  actual  records  of  the  largest  companies. 
Here,  the  construction  side  only  will  be  dealt  with.  In  large 
cities  the  regular  companies  have  their  own  systems  of  work, 
but  in  the  smaller  ones,  and  in  towns,  the  following  informa- 
tion will  be  useful  to  those  who  occasionally  have  a  contract 
of  this  kind,  but  do  not  make  a  speciality  of  such  con- 
struction. 

Risk.  —  To  begin  with,  it  may  be  said  that  a  contractor 
assumes  considerable  risk  when  he  agrees  to  put  up  a  re- 
inforced concrete  building  designed  by  a  man  who  has  not  had 
much  experience  in  that  line.  It  may  be  remembered  that  the 
courts  have  held  that  if  a  contractor  put  up  a  building  on  a 
weak  foundation  and  it  fall  he  has  to  replace  it.  He  is  sup- 
posed to  know  a  good  soil  when  he  sees  it.  Probably  he  is 
also  supposed  to  know  a  good  reinforced  design  when  he  looks 
at  the  plans,  but  the  general  understanding  is  that  he  has  to 
rely  on  the  architect.  He  fails  occasionally. 

FORMS 

Strength.  —  It  is  easy  enough  to  say  that  forms  must  be 
strong  enough  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  to  be  used. 

267 


268     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

That  is  only  reasonable.  Yet  we  often  see  %-inch  boards 
nailed  on  studs  with  such  wide  spacing  that  the  weight  of 
the  wet  concrete  bulges  out  the  boards  and  spoils  the  looks,  and 
sometimes  the  stability,  of  the  finished  work. 

Lumber.  —  Some  of  the  companies  tell  us  that  the  lumber 
used  should  not  be  kiln  dried,  but  there  is  little  danger  of 
getting  that  kind.  Neither  should  it  be  too  green.  If  it  is 
kiln  dried  it  warps  out  of  shape  wrhen  the  wet  material  is 
poured  in.  If  it  is  too  green  it  wrill  not  swell  and  close  the 
joints.  Therefore,  neither  too  dry  nor  too  wet  should  be 
used,  but  between  the  two. 

Kind.  —  The  kind  used  will  depend  upon  the  locality  of  the 
building.  In  Oregon,  yellow  pine  will  not  be  selected,  and  no 
one  in  Georgia  is  going  to  send  for  Oregon  fir.  Any  reason- 
able kind  of  lumber  may  be  used,  but  the  "  bone  "  dry  Y.  P. ' 
is  not  suitable  for  such  work.  It  is  like  cast  iron  in  being  too 
unyielding. 

Fine  Surfaces.  —  For  the  finest  finished  surfaces  white  pine 
is  the  best.  Indeed,  it  is  best  for  the  all  around  use  of  forms, 
but  it  costs  too  much.  One  warning  that  an  estimator  should 
remember  is  that  when  the  finest  concrete  surfaces  are  called 
for,  the  labor  on  the  forms  may  run  to  twice  as  much  as  for 
ordinary  work.  Everything  has  to  be  smoothly  finished. 

Heavy  Work.  —  For  the  large  structures  2-inch  plank  is 
used.  It  should  be  surfaced  on  one  side.  The  real  market 
thickness  is  not  more  than  1%,  and  sometimes  only  1%  inches. 

Widths.  —  In  country  work  where  saw-mills  are  not  avail- 
able, and  ripping  has  to  be  done  by  hand,  it  would  often  pay 
to  leave  the  plank  full  width  and  throw  in  a  little  extra 
concrete  to  save  ripping  the  two  sides  of  beams  and  columns. 
No  reasonable  architect  would  object  to  having  a  column  or 
beam  %-inch,  or  even  1  inch  wider  than  the  figures  called  for. 

Thickness.  —  In  some  parts  of  the  country  lumber  about 
1^4  inches  thick  may  be  obtained,  and  it  is  strong  enough 
for  all  kinds  of  forms,  except  the  heaviest,  if  properly  braced. 
But  for  beams  where  there  is  a  heavy  weight  it  is  better  to 
use  2  inches  in  connection  with  the  1%  inches. 

For  much  work  %-inch  boards,  well  braced,  can  be  used. 
Among  the  first  months  of  my  apprenticeship  I  put  up  a  wall 
lined  with  ordinary  boards  on  both  sides  to  receive  the  con- 
crete. There  was  no  reinforcement  then. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     269 

But  the  thin  boards  are  so  easily  split  that  it  often  pays 
to  use  plank  instead,  as  that  can  be  worked  over  and  over 
without  damage. 

Tongued  and  Grooved  boards  are  better  than  square  edged 
ones,  as  the  finish  is  smoother.  With  the  square  ones  the 
surfaces  may  spring  apart,  while  the  matched  boards  keep 
even. 

Costs.  —  One  great  expense  of  this  class  of  masonry  is  the 
forms.  Many  are  at  work  trying  to  reduce  the  cost,  but  in 
the  meantime  each  one  has  to  follow  the  ordinary  method  of 
work,  and  use  the  same  forms  as  often  as  possible.  I  have  seen 
expensive  forms  for  heavy  mass  piers  used  many  times,  and 
this  is  where  the  economy  lies.  When  architects  design  piers 
for  this  kind  of  work  they  should  make  as  many  of  them  alike 
as  possible.  It  often  pays  to  use  an  extra  yard  of  concrete 
rather  than  make  a  new  form  to  suit  some  trifling  line  that 
is  often  buried  below  the  earth. 

Panels.  —  Wide  panels  should  be  well  shored  up  from  below. 
.They  are  sometimes  hung  from  the  steel  beams  above  if  these 
are  used,  as  in  the  Roebling  system.  This  is  the  same  method 
that  the  hollow  tile  men  have  followed  for  so  many  years, 
except  that  wire  is  generally  used  for  reinforced  work  instead 
of  bolts. 

Boarding.  —  For  panels  %-inch  boards  are  strong  enough 
if  they  are  well  supported.  They  should  be  merely  tacked  and 
not  nailed.  The  weight  of  the  concrete  holds  the  boards  in 
place. 

It  is  better  to  have  the  panel  boarding  clear  of  the  beams, 
so  that  it  can  be  removed  independently.  The  forms  for  the 
beams  must  be  left  on  longer  than  the  ones  for  the  thin 
panels  with  little  weight  to  support.  This  saves  lumber. 

Nails.  —  It  is  better,  when  possible,  to  leave  the  heads  of 
the  nails  sticking  out  a  little,  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
drawn. 

Studs.  —  For  %  -inch  boarding  the  studs  should  not  be  more 
than  24  inches  apart,  and  if  square  edged  boards  are  used 
there  is  apt  to  be  an  uneven  surface  in  some  places  even  at 
this  distance. 

For  1  %-inch  lumber,  3  feet  is  wide  enough;  and  4  feet  6 
inches  to  5  feet  for  2-inch  plank.  To  keep  the  planks 
from  bulging  out  they  are  often  tied  together  with  wire 


270    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

doubled  and  twisted  with  a  small  piece  of   stick  until   it  is 
tight. 

The  studs  have  to  be  of  size  to  suit  the  work,  and  should 
be  specified  by  the  architect  or  engineer.  For  light  work 
with  good  bracing  2  x  4's  are  suitable.  The  next  commercial 
size,  in  the  West  at  all  events,  is  4"  x  4",  and  then  4"  x  6". 
Good  bracing  and  tying  will  help  wonderfully. 

Columns.  —  When  the  upright  planks  are  in  place  for 
columns  they  are  fastened  together  with  cleats  and  wedges 
which  must  be  so  put  in  as  to  hold  when  the  heavy  mass  of 
concrete  comes  against  them.  The  beams  are  wedged  together 
also. 

Cleaning.  —  Before  using  any  kind  of  forms  again  they 
should  be  well  cleaned.  If  any  of  the  concrete  is  left  sticking 
on  the  surface  there  will  be  imperfections  in  the  finished 
work. 

Oiling.  —  If  the  forms  are  well  watered  inside  before  the 
concrete  is  poured  it  will  not  stick  to  them  so  very  much. 
But  to  make  finer  work  they  are  often  oiled  with  linseed  oil, 
crude  oil,  soft  soap,  mixed  lard,  and  kerosene,  or  something 
of  that  nature.  This  fills  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  makes 
a  finer  surface. 

Plaster.  —  If  the  concrete  is  going  to  be  plastered  after- 
wards the  surface  is  better  to  be  rough. 

Weights.  —  Keep  floor  loads  off  green  concrete.  Put  any 
loads  closely  around  a  column,  or  wall  where  the  bearing  is 
good.  Most  of  the  wrecks  of  reinforced  concrete  buildings 
have  come  through  taking  out  the  forms  too  soon,  or  loading 
before  the  work  had  a  chance  to  harden. 

Removing  Forms.  —  No  set  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the 
removal  of  forms.  A  good  deal  depends  upon  the  weather.  In  , 
damp  weather  a  heavy  mass  dries  slowly,  and  this  is  really 
to  the  advantage  of  the  work.  In  dry  weather  the  walls 
should  be  protected  from  the  sun  with  some  kind  of  a  sheet, 
and  watered  occasionally  for  about  a  couple  of  weeks  to  keep 
them  from  drying  too  fast. 

The  size  of  the  member  has  to  be  considered.  A  great 
column  or  beam  takes  longer  to  harden  than  a  small  one;  and 
a  beam  with  a  long  span  should  get  plenty  of  time.  It  is  not 
worth  while  running  the  risk  of  losing  all  the  work  for  the 
sake  of  an  extra  day  or  two. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     271 

TIME   OF   REMOVAL   OF  FORMS 

Arches  in  about  a  week  for  an  ordinary  span,  but  large 
ones  may  require  a  month. 

Beams  and  Long  Span  Slabs  need  from  10  to  14  days  in 
summer,  and  about  half  as  much  more  in  winter.  But  ordinary 
slabs  can  be  taken  out  in  8  or  9  days  in  summer  and  12  to 
14  in  winter.  As  already  noted,  they  should  be  put  in  inde- 
pendently of  the  beams. 

Columns  3  days  in  summer,  and  5  in  winter.  But  this  is 
on  the  supposition  that  the  girders  resting  upon  them  are  so 
supported  from  below  that  the  weight  does  not  reach  the 
columns  till  all  the  girder  shoring  is  removed. 

Ordinary  Conduits  require  3  or  4  days. 

Walls.  —  If  there  is  any  earth  or  water  pressure  behind  a 
wall  the  forms  should  be  left  in  for  3  or  4  weeks,  and  bracing 
carefully  done.  We  often  forget  that  concrete  goes  on  hard- 
ening for  at  least  3  years.  Once  more  we  may  consider  the 
crushing  strength  of  concrete  per  square  foot:  15  tons  for 
1  month  old;  60  tons  for  6  months  old;  96  for  12. 

Alignment.  —  There  is  one  trouble  with  concrete  work  that 
should  be  noted.  I  have  seen  large  foundations  where  the 
walls  were  so  badly  lined  up  that  the  superstructure  stood 
over  on  the  outside  and  had  wasted  space  on  the  inside. 
Sometimes  too  little  is  allowed  by  the  architect.  A  building 
is  not  a  drawing  board.  Masons  need  some  little  leeway.  A 
margin  of  a  couple  of  inches  is  not  too  much  on  rough 
concrete,  especially  when  it  is  hidden  below  the  surface.  If 
too  small  allowance  is  made  there  is  more  time  wasted  trying 
to  get  straight  lines  than  the  value  of  the  concrete  saved  is 
worth,  ten  times  over.  On  a  tapered  pier  an  extra  inch  at 
top  does  not  amount  to  much. 

Practice  versus  Theory.  —  For  columns,  beams,  pilasters, 
and  finished  work  inside,  a  variation  of  i/4-inch  to  %-inch  may 
be  made  without  anyone  being  the  wiser.  A  large  commercial 
building,  and  especially  a  factory,  mill,  or  warehouse,  is  not 
exactly  a  piece  of  cabinet  furniture.  It  is  certainly  possible 
to  get  lines  and  sizes  correct  to  %-inch,  but  the  waste  of  time 
necessary  for  this  fine  work,  where  it  is  not  really  required, 
would  be  unreasonable.  This  is  where  the  superintendent 
who  wants  to  can  pile  up  a  heavy  expense  bill  on  a  con- 


272     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

tractor.  There  would  be  no  excuse  in  making  sizes  to  suit 
one's  own  ideas;  but  little  reason  in  holding  a  builder  down 
to  absolutely  straight  lines  and  exact  measurements  on  heavy 
work. 

CONCRETE  PROPORTIONS 

Theories.  —  Each  French  teacher  has  a  system  of  his  own 
that  he  is  sure  is  better  than  that  of  any  other  teacher;  and 
each  engineer  or  architect  knows  what  the  best  proportions 
for  concrete  are.  The  following  mixtures  are  for  ordinary, 
everyday  use. 

Packed.  —  The  stone  or  gravel,  and  sand  are  measured  loose, 
and  the  cement  packed,  or  as  it  comes  from  the  factory  in  one 
barrel  or  4  sacks  containing  3.8  cubic  feet.  That  is  all  that 
is  allowed  for  cement,  per  barrel,  but  when  spread  out  it 
increases  in  volume  from  20  to  30  per  cent.  If  it  was  allowed 
to  be  taken  loose  each  barrel  would  measure  4%  to  5  cubic  feet. 

Suppose  a  packed  barrel  is  taken.  We  have  3.8  cubic  feet. 
On  a  basis  of  1,  2,  4  we  should  therefore  require  1  barrel 
cement;  twice  3.8  or  7.6  cubic  feet  of  sand;  and  4  times  3.8 
or  15.2  cubic  feet  of  stone  or  gravel.  The  following  propor- 
tions are  made  out  on  the  basis  of  the  packed  barrel. 

The  courts  have  had  to  decide  this  question  of  packed  or 
loose.  As  packed  means  much  more  cement,  which  is  higher 
in  price  than  sand,  the  contractor  should  be  certain  that 
loose  is  to  be  allowed  before  he  puts  in  any  bid. 

Class  1.  —  For  reinforced  floors,  beams,  columns,  walls, 
dynamo  foundations,  or  where  there  is  any  vibration,  use  a 
mixture  of  not  less  than  1,  2,  4. 

Class  2.  —  For  machine  foundations,  arches,  sidewalks,  ordi- 
nary floors,  light  foundation  walls,  use  1,  2%,  and  5. 

Class  3.  —  For  retaining  walls,  heavy  walls,  piers,  and  abut- 
ments, use  a  mixture  of  1,  3,  6.  This  makes  a  concrete  of  good 
quality  for  ordinary  work. 

Class  4.  —  For  heavy  mass  foundations  without  reinforce- 
ment, use  1,  4,  and  8.  This  is  about  the  weakest  mixture 
that  should  be  considered,  although  1,  4,  and  10  has  been  used 
with  success. 

Density.  —  The  concrete  that  weighs  most  per  cubic  foot,  in 
other  words,  is  most  dense,  is  the  best.  This  is  the  one  with 
the  voids  all  filled.  Plenty  of  cement  fills  the  spaces  between 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    273 

the    rougher   grains   of    sand;    and   the    right   amount  of   the 
mixture  is  used  to  fill  the  spaces  between  the  stones. 

The  Cement  Users  give  their  recommended  proportions  as 
follows : 

A: — 1,  li/2,  and  3.  This  is  the  richest  mixture  for  columns, 
structural  work,  and  the  best  water-tight  requirements. 
This  is  1  packed  barrel  of  cement;  iy2  barrels  of  sand, 
or  5.7  cubic  feet;  3  barrels  or  11.4  cubic  feet  of  stone  or 
loose  gravel. 

B: — 1,  2,  and  4.  This  is  for  ordinary  reinforced  floors, 
engine  or  machine  foundations  subject  to  vibration,  tanks, 
sewers,  conduits,  and  ordinary  water-tight  work. 

C: — 1,  21/2,  and  5.  This  is  a  medium  mixture  for  ordinary 
foundations,  retaining  walls,  abutments,  thin  walls,  ordinary 
floors,  sidewalks,  and  sewers  with  heavy  walls. 

D: — 1,  3,  and  6.  This  is  for  heavy  mass  work  for  large 
foundations  with  heavy  loads,  and  backing  for  stone  masonry. 

Measuring.  —  This  is  usually  done  in  a  wheelbarrow  after 
the  first  few  batches  to  find  out  the  proper  proportions. 

Platform.  —  For  small  concrete  foundations  a  platform 
8'  x  8'  will  do,  although  10'  x  10'  is  the  usual  size.  It  should 
be  water-tight  to  keep  the  rich  cement  from  flowing  away,  and 
have  strips  around  the  edges  for  the  same  reason.  It  may  be 
made  of  ordinary  boards,  but  shiplap  or  flooring  is  better. 

Method  of  Work.  —  The  sand  should  go  down  first  on  the 
platform,  then  the  cement,  and  the  two  should  be  mixed  dry 
so  thoroughly  that  neither  sand  nor  cement  can  be  seen 
separately,  but  a  new  material  composed  of  both.  There 
should  be  three  or  four  turnings. 

"Watering.  —  A  hose  should  then  be  turned  on  the  stone  in 
the  wheelbarrow,  or  in  the  pile  itself,  and  it  should  be 
thoroughly  wetted,  then  thrown  on  the  pile,  all  mixed  once 
dry,  and  then  the  Avater  should  be  added  gradually.  In  gen- 
eral, when  a  hose  is  used,  the  water  is  thrown  on  with  such 
force  that  the  fine  cement  is  washed  away,  and  some  insist 
that  pails  be  taken  to  avoid  the  danger.  A  hose  may  be  used 
if  it  is  handled  in  the  right  manner. 

Wet  or  Dry.  —  Neither  one  nor  the  other,  but  about  midway 
between  for  ordinary  work.  Heavy  mass  foundation  work 
should  not  be  soaked  with  water,  for  if  it  is,  it  takes  just  so 
much  longer  to  dry  out.  But  for  columns,  beams,  slabs,  and 


274     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

such  work  if  the  concrete  is  not  well  wetted  it  will  not  flow 
into  place,  and  a  poor  surface  will  be  the  result.  The  purpose 
for  which  the  material  is  used  has  to  be  considered. 

Laying.  —  For  ordinary  work  the  concrete  is  best  laid  in 
layers  of  about  8  inches  thick,  and  lightly  tamped  with  a 
piece  of  scantling,  or  something  of  the  sort,  until  the  water 
rises  to  the  top.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  see  heavy  foundation 
walls  and  piers  run  in  from  the  machine  several  feet  deep  at 
a  time. 

Dropping.  —  Some  engineers  object  to  dropping  concrete 
from  a  height  of  more  than  3  feet  or  so.  The  idea  is  that 
the  cement  and  sand  are  detached  from  the  stone,  and  that  a 
poorer  quality  of  work  is  the  result.  It  has  been  found,  how- 
ever, after  a  careful  examination,  that  there  is  no  difference 
between  the  mass  that  is  dropped  30  feet,  and  the  other  that 
is  dropped  only  5  feet.  Indeed,  in  one  case  where  the  material 
was  dropped  43  feet,  the  tank  was  perfectly  water-tight. 

Fresh  Batches.  —  Use  the  material  as  soon  as  mixed.  This 
is  very  important.  Do  not  make  the  batches  so  large,  if 
mixed  by  hand,  that  the  quantity  cannot  be  soon  put  in  place. 
In  extreme  cases  a  batch  might  have  to  lie  for  a  short  time, 
but  if  any  is  not  placed  in  an  hour  after  the  addition  of  the 
water  it  should  be  thrown  away. 

Freezing".  —  In  freezing  weather  use  a  little  melted  salt 
to  protect  the  material  against  the  frost.  Or  heat  the  sand 
and  stone.  Concrete  is  often  covered  with  dry  manure  in 
winter,  but  if  any  new  work  is  to  be  added  this  is  not  a  very 
good  practice.  If  it  is  used  the  old  wall  must  be  carefully 
swept  and  cleaned. 

Reinforcement.  —  This  must  be  placed  according  to  the 
drawings.  The  architect  or  engineer  is  the  one  to  decide  every- 
thing in  connection  with  reinforcement. 

Walls.  —  The  form  for  the  outside  walls  should  be  erected 
first,  and  the  reinforcement  stapled  against  them  with  as  few 
galvanized  staples  as  possible.  Or  nails  may  be  used  to  keep 
the  metal  at  the  required  distance  from  the  wood. 

Protection.  —  Many  reinforced  concrete  engineers  say  that 
1  inch  of  concrete  is  enough  to  protect  steel  from  fire,  but 
the  insurance  companies  want  at  least  2  inches  between  the 
metal  of  all  structural  members  and  the  surface  exposed. 

Surfaces.  —  No  patching  should  be  allowed  before  the  sur- 
faces are  examined  after  the  forms  are  off.  A  careless  work- 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    275 

man  naturally  wants  to  hide  bad  work,  but  the  safety  of  the 
building  has  to  be  considered. 

Smoothing.  —  If  the  walls  are  rougher  than  is  agreeable  to 
look  at,  mix  a  thin  mortar  of  Portland  cement  and  sand  in 
equal  parts,  and  apply  with  a  whitewash  brush  after  having 
taken  off  all  the  loose  material  and  wetted  the  surface.  This 
is  how  the  cistern  builders  make  a  smooth  surface.  Some  of 
the  reinforced  surfaces  we  see,  however,  are  more  in  need  of 
a  spade  than  a  brush.  The  mixture  must  be  well  stirred. 

Keying.  —  Sometimes  the  surface  is  left  rough  and  stucco 
applied  in  the  keys. 

Paint  does  not  last  very  well  when  applied  to  the  surfaces 
of  concrete  buildings,  but  many  of  them  are  painted.  One  of 
the  advantages  of  concrete  facades,  according  to  the  cement 
companies,  is  that  painting  is  never  required. 

Other  Finishes.  —  Occasionally  sand  blast  is  used,  and  ham- 
mering, picking,  etc.,  but  these  treatments  are  expensive. 
Further  on  in  this  chapter  coloring  is  discussed. 

Hammering'.  —  A  good  deal  of  work  has  been  hammer 
dressed.  A  hammer  with  20  to  30  sharp  points  on  the  end 
is  used.  But  the  trouble  with  all  finishes  that  break  the 
surface  is  with  the  moisture.  This  does  not  need  to  be  con- 
sidered in  dry  climates.  The  fine  smooth  skin  of  concrete 
laid  against  the  well  oiled  forms  is  deliberately  broken  up. 
The  protection  is  destroyed  for  the  sake  of  artistic  effect. 
Some  say  that  by  using  a  richer  mixture  on  the  outside  the 
moisture  cannot  enter.  In  raw  lake  or  sea  regions,  where  the 
frost  penetrates  everything,  this  treatment  would  seem  to 
be  entirely  wrong. 

Cost.  —  A  laborer  can  dress  from  40  to  50  square  feet  in  a 
day  of  8  hours.  At  20  cents  per  hour  this  means  about  3  or 
4  cents  per  square  foot,  no  scaffolding  being  included.  This 
is  as  much  as  ordinary  inside  plaster  is  worth. 

Bonding1.  —  In  floor  slabs  the  question  comes  up  as  to  where 
the  stop  should  be  made  for  the  day.  On  the  top  of  the  beam, 
or  in  the  center  of  the  span?  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion, 
but  the  center  of  the  span  is  usually  accepted.  This  is  where 
the  compression  is  greatest,  and  thus  there  is  less  danger 
of  cracking.  The  trouble  is  with  dust  and  dirt.  Before  join- 
ing the  new  concrete  to  the  old,  everything  should  be  scrupu- 
lously clean. 


276     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

EXPANDED  METAL  SLABS  FOB  FLOORS,  ROOFS,  SIDEWALKS,  ETC. 

(The  following  tables  were  sent  me  for  this  book  by  the 
Northwestern  Expanded  Metal  Company,  Chicago.  The  mesh 
in  all  is  3  inches.  This  size  has  been  proved  by  experience 
to  be  the  best.  The  smaller  sizes  cut  up  the  concrete  too 
much ) . 

Notes  for  All  Tables 

Thickness  of  slab  is  the  total  thickness,  in  which  is  included 
one-half  inch  of  concrete  under  the  steel. 

Total  load  is  the  sum  of  the  weight  of  slab  and  the  super- 
imposed safe  load. 

These  tables  are  all  based  on  sheets  3  feet  wide,  having  a 
sidelap  1  mesh  wide. 

"  The  tables  as  given  below  give  the  sizes  according  to  our 
uniform  standards,  to  be  used  by  us  after  January  1,  1910." — 

These  4  tables  give  the  sizes  most  commonly  is  use. 


TABLE  I 
No.  06-3  North  Western  Expanded  Metal.    Weight,  per  sq.  ft.,  .20  Iba. 


Span  in  Feet 

2' 

2'  6" 

3' 

3'  6" 

4' 

4'  6" 

5' 

5'  6" 

ff 

Total 
Thick- 
ness of 
Slab 

Weight 
of  Slab 
per  Sq. 

Ft. 

Superimposed  Safe  Loads  in  Lbs.  per  Square 
Foot 

l-2J^-5  Broken  Stone  or  1-5  Bank  Gravel 
Concrete 

2" 

p- 

24 
31 
37 

170 

240 
320 

100 
140 
190 

60 
90 
120 

40 
60 
80 

24 

37 
50 

23 
33 

20 

1-24  Slag,  Brick  or  Burnt  Clay  Concrete 

3H" 
4" 
4^" 

43 
49 
55 

400 
470 
550 

240 
280 
330 

150 
180 
210 

100 
120 
140 

67 
80 
95 

44 
53 
63 

27 
34 
40 

20 
25 

Best  Quality  Cinder  Concrete 

5" 

$r 

48 
53 
58 

630 
710 

780 

380 
430 

480 

240 
280 
310 

160 

185 
205 

110 
125 
140 

74 
85 
96 

48 
57 
64 

90 

35 
40 

20 

22 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    277 


TABLE  II 
No.  11-3  North  Western  Expanded  Metal.   Weight,  per  sq.  ft.,  .34  Ibs. 


Span 

2' 

2'  6" 

3' 

3'  6" 

41 

4'  6" 

5' 

5'6" 

6' 

7' 

8r 

Total  Slab 
Thickness 

A 

=l| 

Superimposed  Safe  Loads  in  Pounds  per  Square 
Foot 

1-2-4  Broken  Stone  or  Washed  Gravel  Concrete 

2" 

& 

24 
31 
37 

320 
460 
600 

200 
290 
370 

130 
190 
250 

88 
130 
170 

62 
93 
120 

44 
66 

89 

30 
48 
65 

20 
34 

47 

24 
34 

1-2^-5  Broken  Stone  or  1-5  Bank  Gravel  Concrete 

w 

&" 

43 
49 
55 
61 

740 
890 

460 
550 
640 
730 

310 
370 
430 
490 

210 
260 
300 
340 

150 
190 
220 
250 

110 
135 
160 
185 

82 
100 
120 
140 

60 
75 
90 
105 

44 
55 
66 
76 

21 

28 
34 
40 

1-2-4  Slag,  Brick  or  Burnt  Clay  Concrete 

§?' 

7" 
8" 

67 
73 
85 
98 

820 
910 

550 
610 

740 
860 

390 
430 
520 
610 

280 
310 
380 
440 

210 
230 
280 
330 

160 
175 
210 
250 

115 
130 
160 
190 

87 
98 
120 
145 

47 
53 
66 
79 

20 
23 
30 
37 

Best  Quality  Cinder  Concrete 

9" 
10" 

86 
96 

980 

690 
780 

500 
570 

375 
425 

285 
320 

215 
245 

165 
185 

90 
105 

44- 

50 

Danger.  —  As  already  noted,  it  is  rather  risky  for  an  ordi- 
nary contractor  to  attempt  to  design  a  reinforced  structure 
of  any  kind.  But  ordinary  slabs  on  steel  beams  are  easily 
enough  taken  care  of  if  the  above,  or  any  standard,  tables  are 
utilized.  "Weight  for  weight,"  says  one  authority,  "ex- 
panded metal  has  greater  reinforcing  value  than  any  other 
material."  Owing  to  its  shape  it  has  also  more  of  a  mechan- 
ical bond  than  some  of  the  other  kinds  of  reinforcement.  The 
sheets  lap,  and  this  gives  a  continuous  slab. 

Popular  Name.  —  So  safe  is  this  system  that  the  North- 
western Company  calls  it  "  fool-proof."  There  is  no  chance 
of  mistake.  The  reinforcement  and  the  concrete  do  the  work 
if  the  tables  are  followed. 


278    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


TABLE  III 
No.  16-3  North  Western  Expanded  Metal.   Weight,  per  sq.  ft.,  .55  Ibs. 


Span 

2'  6" 

3' 

3'  6" 

4' 

4'  6" 

5' 

5'  6" 

6' 

7' 

8' 

9' 

10' 

Total  Slab 
Thickness 

^5 
"Sfc 
-§§* 

*$* 
*l 

Superimposed  Safe  Loads  in  Pounds  per  Square 
Foot 

1-24  Broken  Stone  or  Washed  Gravel  Concrete 

2" 

w 

P" 

24 
31 
37 
43 
49 

240 
430 
560 
700 
830 

160 
290 
380 
470 
560 

110 
210 
270 
340 
400 

78 
150 
200 
2.50 
290 

57 
110 
150 
190 
220 

40 
84 
110 
140 
170 

30 
64 
87 
110 
130 

20 
50 
67 
85 
100 

28 
40 
50 
63 

21 
29 
37 

19 

$r 
5P" 

1" 

55 
61 
67 
73 

85 

1-2^-5  Broken  Stone  or  1-5  Bank  Gravel  Concrete 

970 

660 
740 
830 
930 

470 

530 
600 
670 
800 

350 
390 
440 
490 
590 

260 
290 
330 
370 
450 

200 
230 
260 
290 
350 

160 

180 
200 
230 
270 

120 
140 
160 
180 
220 

76 
86 
100 
112 
135 

45 
52 
60 
68 
84 

24 

28 
33 
39 
48 

17 
23 

1-2-4  Slag,  Brick  or  Burnt  Clay  Concrete 

8" 
9" 
10" 
11" 
12" 

98 
110 
122 
135 
147 

930 

690 
810 
890 

520 
610 
680 
760 
830 

400 
480 
530 
590 

640 

320 
370 
420 
460 
510 

250 
300 
330 
370 
400 

160 
190 
210 
230 
260 

98 
120 
130 
150 
160 

57 
70 
80 
90 
97 

28 
36 

40 
45 
50 

Bond.  —  Reinforcement  with  plain  bars  is  safe  enough,  for 
the  concrete  takes  a  strong  grip  on  the  metal.  But  some  say 
that  in  course  of  time  the  bond  weakens,  and  for  this  reason 
a  mechanical  bond  is  now  used  with  the  bars.  There  are  lug 
bars,  and  twisted  and  square  and  cup  ones  of  various  kinds. 
Expanded  metal  is  so  set  at  an  angle  as  to  furnish  a  good 
bond  of  itself  without  any  other  reinforcement. 

I-Beams  and  Expanded  Metal.  —  For  a  plain  floor  get  the 
size  of  the  I-beams  from  the  floor  load,  taking  care  to  add  the 
concrete  at  145  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot  if  of  stone,  and  90 
if  of  cinders.  Space  the  beams  to  suit,  and  do  not  go  beyond 
spans  of  7  or  8  feet.  The  Underwriters'  code  for  work  of 
this  kind  allows  only  5-foot  centers  for  stores,  warehouses, 
and  factories,  and  8  feet  for  other  buildings.  The  beams 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    279 


TABLE  IV 
No.  35-3  North  Western  Expanded  Metal.     Weight,  per  sq.  ft.,  1.185  Ibs. 


Span 

3'  6" 

4' 

4'  6" 

5' 

5'  6" 

6' 

7' 

8' 

9' 

10' 

11' 

12' 

Total  Slab 
Thickness 

-g£ 

•§§* 

*& 
^£ 

Superimposed  Safe  Loads  in  Pounds  per  Square 
Foot 

1-2-4  Broken  Stone  or  Washed  Gravel  Concrete 

3" 

$*' 
&" 
P" 

37 
43 
49 
55 
61 
67 
73 

410 

580 
820 
950 

300 
430 
610 
720 
820 
920 

230 
330 

470 
550 
630 
710 

790 

180 
260 
380 
440 
500 
560 
630 

140 
210 
300 
350 
410 
460 
510 

110 
170 
250 
290 
330 
370 
410 

74 

no 

170 

200 
230 
260 
290 

48 
75 
120 
140 
160 
180 
200 

30 
50 
82 
97 
110 
130 
140 

33 
57 

68 
80 
90 
100 

20 
38 
47 
55 
64 
72 

25 

30 

sr 

43 
49 

l-2%-5  Broken  Stone  or  1-5  Bank  Gravel  Concrete 

V 
8" 
9" 
10" 
11" 
12" 

85 
98 
110 
122 
135 
147 

950 

760 

880 

610 
710 
820 
920 

500 
580 
670 
760 
850 
930 

340 
4dO 
470 
520 
590 
640 

240 
230 
330 
370 
420 
460 

170 

200 
240 
270 
300 
330 

125 
150 
170 
190 
220 
240 

88 
105 
125 
140 
160 
170 

60 
72 
85 
97 
110 
120 

should  be  bolted  together  with  rods  at  intervals  of  not  more 
than  8  times  their  depth. 

Forms.  —  They  may  be  hung  to  the  beams  in  the  regular 
way,  or  shored  up  from  below.  If  the  beams  are  to  be  fire- 
proofed,  as  they  should  be,  a  sheet  of  expanded  metal  must 
be  put  around  the  lower  flange,  or  some  of  the  other  methods 
used  for  protecting  the  metal.  Then  the  concrete  can  be 
spread  on  the  forms  before  the  metal  is  laid.  Most  of  the 
companies  are  content  with  1  inch  thickness,  but  the  insur- 
ance authorities  want  2  inches  between  fire  and  steel. 

Strips.  —  If  a  wood  floor  is  to  be  used,  wood  strips  should 
be  bedded  in  the  concrete  every  16  inches  or  so,  for  a  nailing. 
They  should  be  dovetailed,  or  made  wider  on  the  bottom  than 
the  top  to  keep  them  secure  in  place  when  the  concrete  hardens. 

Some  object  to  strips,  and  use  an  under  floor  laid  diagonally. 
The  strips  have  to  be  1%  inches  thick,  and  this  means  that  a 
heavy  weight  of  concrete  is  added  to  the  slab,  to  hold  them  in 
place,  without  giving  any  more  strength.  The  Roebling  Com- 
pany prefers  the  under-floor  system,  claiming  that  the  strips 


280    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

become  useless  in  a  few  years  through  dry  rot.  The  under 
floor  may  be  nailed  directly  to  the  concrete. 

If  strips  and  concrete  are  used,  the  filling  to  hold  them  in 
place  should  be  as  light  as  possible.  One  of  Portland  and 
10  of  cinders  and  sand  will  serve. 

But  it  should  be  remembered  before  deciding  to  use  such 
strips  that  at  San  Francisco  both  floors  and  strips  were  burnt 
out  completely. 

More  Tables.  —  Another  set  of  expanded  metal  tables  is  given 
below.  As  will  be  noticed,  there  is  considerable  difference  in 
the  loading  of  these  as  compared  with  the  set  already  given. 
There  is  no  definite,  accepted  standard  of  loading  as  yet  among 
the  expanded  metal  men. 


SLAB  TABLES,  EXPANDED  METAL  REINFORCEMENT 

How  to  Use  the  Tables 

Example  1.  —  What  expanded  metal  reinforcement  and  thick- 
ness of  slab  are  required  to  sustain  a  live  load  of  150  pounds 
per  square  foot  with  beams  spaced  7  feet  6  inches  center  to 
center,  allowing  a  factor  of  4  on  both  live  and  dead  loads? 

Answer.  —  Beginning  with  Table  1,  in  the  column  under 
7  feet  6  inches  span,  read  down  until  the  load  nearest  150 
pounds  is  reached.  This  is  154  pounds.  Read  across  the  table 
to  the  first  column,  "  Slab  Thickness,"  where  a  5y2-inch  slab  is 
indicated.  Table  1  is  based  on  the  use  of  Expanded  Metal, 
Style  No.  2,  which  is  the  reinforcement  required. 

If  a  slab  thinner  than  5%  inches  is  desired  refer  to  Table  2, 
which  is  based  on  the  use  of  heavier  Expanded  Metal,  Style 
No.  3.  Follow  down  the  column  under  7  feet  6  inches  span 
and  find  the  load  nearest  150  pounds,  which  is  158  pounds. 
Refer  across  to  the  first  column,  where  a  4%-inch  slab  is 
indicated. 

In  Table  3,  under  the  7  feet  6  inches  column,  we  find  151 
pounds  is  the  nearest  the  required  live  load,  and  that  a  4-inch 
slab  is  indicated  in  the  first  column.  This  table  requires  the 
use  of  Expanded  Metal,  Style  No.  4. 

Example  2. —  (A)  What  load  will  a  5-inch  stone  concrete 
slab  sustain  over  7-foot  span,  center  to  center,  reinforced  with 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    281 

Style  No.  2  Expanded  Metal  providing  factors  of  safety  of 
4  on  both  live  and  dead  loads? 

(B)  Find  the  thickness,  and  reinforcement  required,  for 
other  slabs  than  given  in  (A)  to  sustain  the  same  load, 
and  on  the  same  span  with  the  same  factors  of  safety. 

Answer.  —  ( A )  Table  1  provides  the  required  factors  of 
safety  and  is  based  upon  the  use  of  Expanded  Metal,  Style  No. 
2.  Read  down  the  column  under  the  7-foot  span  to  the  line 
opposite  "5-inch  slab"  and  we  find  164  pounds  per  square 
foot,  which  is  the  load  that  the  slab  described  would  sustain 
under  given  conditions. 

(B)  Refer  to  Table  2  and  read  down  the  7-foot  span  column. 
The  nearest  load  is  167  pounds,  which  appears  in  the  line 
opposite  4-inch  slab.  The  reinforcement  is  Expanded  Metal, 
Style  No.  3  (shown  at  the  top  of  table). 

Example  3.  —  Given  a  5% -inch  slab  reinforced  with  Ex- 
panded Metal,  Style  No.  2,  a  live  load  of  125  pounds  per 
square  foot,  and  a  factor  of  safety  of  4  on  both  live  and 
dead  loads  required.  What  is  the  maximum  distance,  center 
to  center,  of  supports? 

Answer.  —  The  factors  of  safety  and  the  style  of  mesh  refer 
us  to  Table  1.  On  line  with  5%-inch  slab,  reading  to  the 
right,  we  come  to  125  pounds,  which  is  the  given  load.  Read- 
ing up  this  column  to  the  top  we  find  the  span  given,  center 
to  center,  between  supports,  as  8  feet. 

Allowance  for  Laps 

In.  designing  with  expanded  metal,  the  usual  practice  is  to 
allow  6  inches  lap  on  ends  of  sheets  over  supports,  or  12  inches 
when  the  sheets  lap  between  supports.  No  laps  at  sides  of 
sheets  are  necessary.  The  exact  percentage  of  laps  can 
readily  be  calculated  by  reference  to  the  standard  sizes  of 
sheets  for  the  style  of  reinforcement  used  in  the  following 
table: 


282     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


WEIGHTS,     SECTIONAL    AREAS,     WORKING    LOADS,     AND     STANDARD 
SIZES  OF  SHEETS 
EXPANDED   METAL 


Style 
No. 

Size  of 
Me.ih 
Short 
Way 
(in.) 

Gauge 
of 
Metal 

Appro*. 
Weight 

per 
sq.  ft. 
(Ibs.) 

Working 
Load  at 
16,000 
)bs.  per 
sq.  in. 

Standard  Size  Sheets  in  Ft. 

Long  Way 
of  Diamond 

Short  Way 
of  Diamond 

1 

3 

10  [LIGHT] 

.495 

2.320 

8-10)6 

4-7 

2 

3 

10    [STANDARD] 

.60 

2,816 

{% 

4-6 

3 

4 
5 
6 

3 
3 
3 
3 

10  [PLUS  25£] 
10  [PLUS  50*  ] 
10   [PLUS  75%] 
10  [PLUS   100#J 

.75 
.90 
1.05 
1.20 

3,536 
4,224 
4.944 
5,648 

g7-7g-8          1 

J 

4-6 

8 

3 

12 

.408 

1,920 

/  4^-5-5^-6-6^  \ 
\  7-7^-8-10-  10)6  / 

11 

3 

16 

.235 

1,104 

4-5}4-6 

13 

2 

12 

.547 

2,576 

1      4^-5-5)6-6      I 

4-4)6 

15 

2 

16 

.351 

1,648 

6-7-8 

3)6-4 

16 

I« 

12 

.625 

2,944 

/      4)6-5-5)6-6      \ 
I      6)6-7-7)6-8      / 

3)6-4 

18 

IMS 

16 

.401 

1,888 

6-7-8 

6-7 

19 

* 

13 

.80 

3,760 

1       4)6-5-5)6-6       | 
)       6)6-7-7)6-8      1 

4)6-5 

22 

N 

16 

.703 

8  812 

6-7-8 

3^~4 

23 

3 

18 

.5 

2,'S52 

8 

5 

EXPANDED  METAL  SLAB  TABLES 
Showing  safe  live  loads  in  pounds  per  square  foot. 
Stress  of  steel   in  tension,    16,000   pounds  per   square  inch. 
Extreme   fiber  stress  of  concrete   in  compression,   600  pounds 
per  square  inch.     Concrete  in  shear,  not  over   60  pounds  per 
square    inch.     Ratio    of    moduli    of    elasticity    taken    as    12. 
Straight  line  formula.       Bending  moment,  one-tenth  WL. 

SLAB  TABLE  NO.   1— FACTORS,   LIVE  LOAD,  4;   DEAD  LOAD,  4. 
3"  No.  10  Expanded  Metal,    Standard,    (Style   No.   2.) 

SPAN. 


1 

5  « 

'0 

to 

*0 

to 

^ 

«9 

*0 

to 

:0 

i 
to 

0 

t 

5 

t 

So 

to 

*o 

* 

^. 

^ 

fe> 

US 

<o 

«. 

t- 

c- 

CO 

00 

« 

at 

o 

" 

3 

~ 

3 

357 

261 

197 

151 

118 

92 

73 

57 

3% 

478 

350 

266 

205 

161 

128 

102 

81 

65 

52 

4 

572 

421 

319 

247 

194 

154 

124 

99 

80 

64 

51 

4% 

666 

490 

371 

288 

227 

181 

145 

117 

94 

76 

61 

48 

5 

750 

554 

420 

326 

257 

205 

164 

133 

108 

86 

70 

55 

43 

51^ 

859 

634 

483 

374 

296 

236 

190 

154 

125 

101 

82 

66 

52 

40 

6 

953 

706 

538 

417 

330 

264 

213 

172 

140 

114 

92 

74 

60 

46 

35 

6% 

1022 

756 

576 

446 

352 

282 

228 

184 

150 

121 

98 

79 

63 

49 

37 

27 

7 

1116 

826 

626 

487 

386 

309 

249 

202 

164 

133 

108 

87 

69 

54 

41 

30 

20 

7% 

1191 

880 

670 

520 

411 

329 

265 

215 

175 

142 

115 

93 

73 

57 

43 

32 

21 

8 

1324 

974 

744 

578 

458 

367 

296 

240 

196 

160 

130 

105 

84 

66 

51 

39 

26 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    283 


SLAB  TABLE   NO.   2— FACTORS,   LIVE   LOAD,   4;   DEAD   LOAD,   4. 
3"    No.    10   Expanded    Metal,    Plus   25   per   cent.      (Style   No.    3.) 

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230 

190 

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752 

587 

468 

378 

309 

255 

211 

175 

146 

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SLAB   TABLE   NO.   3— FACTORS,   LIVE   LOAD,    4;    DEAD   LOAD,   4. 
3"   No.    10  Expanded   Metal,    Plus   50  per   cent.     (Style   No.   4.) 

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360 

292 

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198 

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860 

660 

518 

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191 

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79 

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1284 

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737 

579 

464 

376 

309 

256 

214 

180 

151 

127 

107 

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75 

63 

51 

6 

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1076 

826 

649 

522 

423 

348 

288 

241 

202 

170 

144 

121 

102 

86 

71 

59 

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1572 

1172 

900 

707 

566 

459 

378 

314 

262 

220 

186 

157 

132 

111 

93 

78 

65 

7 

1716 

1276 

981 

772 

621 

504 

416 

344 

288 

242 

204 

172 

146 

122 

103 

87 

72 

7% 

1410 

1085 

855 

686 

560 

460 

383 

320 

270 

228 

193 

163 

138 

117 

99 

82 

8 

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1142 

899 

721 

587 

472 

401 

336 

283 

239 

202 

170 

144 

121 

103 

85 

SLAB  TABLE   NO.   4-F ACTORS,    LIVE   LOAD,    4;   DEAD   LOAD,   4. 
3"  No.    10   Expanded   Metal,    Plus  75  per  cent.     (Style   No.    5.) 
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386 

319 

265 

222 

187 

159 

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97 

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1129 

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372 

310 

260 

220 

187 

159 

135 

115 

98 

84 

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6 

1678 

1253 

964 

762 

613 

500 

413 

344 

290 

245 

208 

177 

151 

129 

110 

95 

79 

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1852 

1387 

1067 

842 

678 

554 

458 

382 

322 

272 

232 

198 

168 

144 

123 

105 

89 

7 

2016 

1496 

1156 

916 

736 

601 

496 

416 

349 

296 

252 

215 

183 

156 

134 

116 

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1630 

1250 

990 

800 

653 

540 

450 

380 

322 

274 

234 

200 

171 

146 

126 

106 

8 

1734 

1334 

1054 

854 

695 

575 

480 

404 

342 

292 

249 

213 

182 

156 

134 

114 

284     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


SLAB    TABLE    NO.    5— FACTORS,    LIVE    LOAD,    4;    DEAD    LOAD,    4. 
3"   No.    10   Expanded   Metal,    Plus   100  per   cent.    (Style   No.    6.) 


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877 

650 

498 

390 

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490 

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340 

289 

247 

212 

182 

156 

135 

117 

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1577 

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962 

777 

637 

528 

442 

374 

318 

272 

234 

201 

173 

150 

130 

111 

7 

1721 

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1051 

850 

696 

579 

483 

409 

348 

298 

256 

218 

190 

164 

143 

122 

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1890 

1460 

1155 

930 

765 

635 

532 

450 

384 

330 

280 

243 

210 

182 

158 

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804 

687 

579 

473 

402 

346 

296 

255 

220 

190 

166 

142 

The  foregoing  tables  are  those  of  the  General  Fire-proofing 
Company,  Youngstown,  Ohio.  This  company  makes  Trussit,  a 
reinforcement  that  can  be  used  on  roofs  without  forms.  It 
is  also  used  for  walls  and  partitions.  In  pounds  per  square 
foot  27  gage  is  .710;  26,  .770;  24,  1.02. 

A  few  of  the  expanded  metal  lath  products  of  the  same 
company  are  given  below  to  illustrate  the  difference  of  weight, 
which  is  often  forgotten  when  purchasing. 

HERRINGBONE   EXPANDED   METAL  LATH 

"  A  "  Herringbone 
For  all  classes  of  work. — Weight  per  square  yard 

28   Gage 3      Ibs. 

26  Gage 3f    Ibs. 

Sheets  14"  x  96"        .        .      1   square  yard. 
Packed  20  sheets  ( 20  yds. )  to  the  bundle. 

"BB"   Herringbone 
For  all  classes  of  work. — Weight  per  square  yard 

27  Gage 2y4  Ibs. 

26  Gage 2y2  Ibs. 

24  Gage 3|     Ibs. 

Sheets  20i/4"x96"        .    \%  square  yards. 

Packed  15  Sheets    (22ya  yds.)   to  the  bundle. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    285 

KEY   EXPANDED    METAL   LATH 

Size  of  sheets  18"x96";  15  sheets,  20  square  yards,  in  a 
bundle. 

Approximate  Weights  in  Pounds  per  Square  Yard 

Gage  Not  Coated  Galvanized 
27                                   2.25  2.8 

26  2.50  3.1 

25  3.00  3.6 

24  3.40  4.07 

Furnished  not  coated,  painted,  or  galvanized  after  being 
expanded. 

Aggregate.  —  The  Underwriters  allow  almost  any  kind  of 
aggregate  or  mixture.  Some  object  to  cinders,  but  they  give 
broken  brick,  terra  cotta,  furnace  clinkers,  slag,  stone,  or 
gravel  not  more  than  %-inch  diameter.  They  require  1  inch 
under  the  steel  for  strength,  and  %-inch  more  for  fire  pro- 
tection. 

Proportions.  —  Their  proportions  are  1,  2,  and  4.  For 
columns  1,  2,  and  5  may  be  used. 

CINDER    CONCRETE 

Weight.  —  From  70  to  96  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  On  account 
of  this  lightness  cinder  concrete  has  been  a  good  deal  used 
for  floor  slabs.  But  the  cinders  are  porous,  and  the  mixture 
lacks  the  density  that  means  quality.  This  allows  rust  and 
flames  to  reach  the  metal  with  disastrous  results.  Another 
danger  is  that  the  coal  may  not  be  all  burned,  and  this  opens 
the  way  for  fire  to  destroy  the  slab. 

Report  on  Rust.  —  In  San  Francisco,  after  the  fire,  it  was 
noticed  that  the  corrosion  was  such  that  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  investigate.  The  report  advised  that  cinder  con- 
crete should  not  be  allowed  in  fireproof  buildings. 

The  Northwestern  Expanded  Metal  Company  says :  "  Cinder 
concrete  is  not  recommended  by  the  best  authorities  on  con- 
crete w.ork.  The  use  of  this  material  is  rapidly  on  the  de- 


286     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

dine."  As  this  company  naturally  would  prefer  light  to 
heavy  slabs,  other  things  being  equal,  this  means  that  the 
quality  of  cinder  concrete  is  not  good  enough  to  warrant  its 
use,  even  when  the  advantage  of  lightness  is  taken  into 
account.  Experience  seems  to  have  been  doing  its  work,  for  the 
expanded  metal  companies  in  their  1896  book  said:  "Cinder 
concrete  weighs  from  60  to  80  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  or  about 
one-half  the  weight  of  the  aggregate  stone  concrete,  and  has  a 
better  fire  resistance."  Then  in  the  1900  booklet  the  com- 
panies say,  "  In  most  expanded  metal  floors  clean  boiler 
cinders  are  very  much  better  (than  stone),  as  they  make  a 
lighter  concrete,  and  one  which  at  the  same  time  is  amply 
strong  for  the  purpose,  while  resisting  fire  better  than  concrete 
made  with  stone.  The  usual  mixture  is  1,  2,  and  6." 
The  Ransome  Company  gives  the  following  opinion: 
"  The  TTse  of  Slag  or  Cinder  Aggregates.  —  The  use  of  slag 
or  cinders  as  aggregates  for  concrete  should  be  determined  upon 
only  after  careful  investigation.  In  many  cases  the  economy 
effected  is  only  apparent,  not  real.  By  reason  of  the  greater 
percentage  of  voids  in  slag  and  cinders  as  compared  with 
broken  stone,  a  much  larger  proportion  of  mortar  is  required 
to  secure  smooth  work,  and  the  resulting  concrete  is  never  as 
strong  as  good  broken  stone  concrete,  where  an  equal  volume 
of  cement  is  used." 

The  Test.  —  In  Major  SewelPs  San  Francisco  report  he  says: 
"  None  of  the  columns  covered  with  cinder  concrete  suffered 
any  serious  damage,  but  there  were  not  many  protected  in  this 
way.  .  .  .  The  cinder  concrete  floor  slabs  in  many  buildings 
were  protected  for  a  time  by  the  furred  ceilings.  Where  the 
ceilings  failed  at  an  early  stage,  or  where  there  had  been 
no  ceilings,  the  damage  to  the  concrete  slabs  was  very  apparent. 
The  concrete  was  dehydrated  to  a  certain  extent  on  its  lower 
surface,  and  in  many  of  the  slabs  the  reinforcement  had 
become  so  hot  that  there  was  a  permanent  deflection  of  greater 
or  less  extent,  accompanied  by  cracks  on  the  lower  side  in  the 
middle  of  the  span.  Most  of  the  cinder  concrete  used  in  San 
Francisco  was  evidently  a  very  inferior  article  in  the  first 
place.  ...  A  hollow  tile  floor  which  comes  through  a  fire 
without  losing  any  of  its  webs  is  as  good  as  it  was  before; 
whereas  concrete  of  any  kind  is  inevitably  damaged." 

Kidder  thinks  that  cinder  concrete  is  better  than  that  made 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    287 

of  stone  and  gravel  for  spans  under  7  feet  and  loads  up  to 
150  pounds. 

The  Chicago  ordinance  also  permits  it,  and  gives  the  least 
thickness  of  covering  for  ordinary  members  as  2  inches; 
3  inches  for  columns;  3  inches  for  segmental  arches  at  the 
crown;  4  inches  for  slabs  up  to  8-foot  span  or  less;  and 
5  inches  between  8  and  10  feet. 

The  Roebling  Company  says :  "  The  standard  concrete,  as 
adopted  by  this  company  after  ten  years'  experience,  and  as 
the  result  of  numerous  tests  and  a  careful  study  of  actual 
conflagrations,  is  composed  of  1  part  high-grade  Portland 
cement,  2%  parts  clean,  sharp  sand,  and  6  parts  steam  boiler 
cinders."  Some  of  their  floor  loads  are  based  on  4,000  pounds 
to  the  square  foot. 

Choice.  —  As  things  stand  now  we  can  use  cinder  concrete 
or  condemn  it  as  we  please,  and  have  good  authority  on  our 
side. 

CEMENT    SIDEWALKS 

Lumber.  —  The  price  has  risen  so  much  that  we  are  now 
driven  to  cement,  sand,  and  stone;  but  if  we  pay  a  little  more 
for  this  kind  of  a  walk  it  is  worth  the  extra  cost. 

Heaving.  —  In  northern  climates  there  is  danger  from  freez- 
ing and  heaving  after  the  walk  is  laid.  Sometimes  this  trouble 
cannot  be  altogether  overcome.  If  the  ground  is  wet  common 
drain  pipes  should  be  laid  with  a  fall  of  at  least  %  -inch  to  the 
foot,  one  on  each  side,  running  to  a  hole  dug  outside  of  the 
walk  and  filled  with  cinders.  In  wet  or  soft  soil  a  bed  of 
cinders  varying  from  5  inches  to  10  inches  thick  is  put  down. 
Any  other  material,  such  as  broken  brick,  gravel,  or  stone,  may 
be  used,  but  cinders  are  so  porous  as  to  make  the  best  founda- 
tion. A  deep  base  should  be  watered  and  tamped  in  layers. 

Excavation.  —  This  should  be  made  to  extend  3  inches  over 
on  each  side,  and  if  the  ground  is  not  hard  it  should  be  tamped. 
Most  soils  are  hard  enough. 

Filling.  —  If  the  ground  is  too  low  it  has  to  be  filled.  If 
more  than  12  inches  of  earth  is  required  it  must  be  flooded 
with  water  and  tamped  in  layers  of  not  more  than  6  inches. 
At  the  level  of  the  walk  the  earth  must  extend  at  least  12 
inches  outside  of  the  concrete  on  each  side. 

Thickness.  —  The  ordinary  thickness  of  a  walk  is  4  inches, 


288     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

and  the  cinders  or  other  material  should  be  left  this  distance 
down.  For  some  special  purposes  thicker  sidewalks  are  re- 
quired. When  a  walk  has  to  be  6  feet  wide,  for  example,  the 
thickness  should  be  at  least  5  inches. 

Slab  Sizes.  —  No  slab  should  contain  more  than  36  square 
feet,  or  have  a  greater  dimension  than  6  feet,  unless  reinforced 
with  14 -inch  rods  not  more  than  9  inches  apart.  Thus,  a  slab 
4'x9'  although  containing  only  36  square  feet  should  not  be 
made. 

Forms.  —  Two  lines  of  2  x  4's  should  be  laid  full  length  of 
the  walk,  unless  it  is  of  special  length,  set  at  the  width  re- 
quired. They  should  be  run  on  top  exactly  at  the  level  the 
finished  walk  is  to  be.  Boards  may  be  used  if  they  are  braced. 
As  the  2  x  4's  are  only  3%  wide  the  concrete  must  be  at  least 
y2  inch  deeper. 

Slope.  —  If  the  walk  is  to  be  laid  to  the  house  with  a  slope 
clear  to  the  front  of  the  lot,  it  should  be  level  the  cross  way; 
but  if  it  runs  parallel  to  the  gutter  the  inside  edge  should 
be  higher  to  shed  the  water.  A  fall  of  %  inch  to  the  foot  is 
enough. 

Staking.  —  The  2x4  guides  should  be  well  staked  down  to 
keep  them  in  place  when  the  tamping  begins,  but  they  need 
not  be  nailed.  The  smooth  side  should  go  in. 

Panels.  —  The  easiest  way  for  many  is  to  cut  a  2x4  in 
across  where  the  panels  are  to  be,  fill  in  each  alternate  space, 
let  the  concrete  harden  a  little,  and  then  move  the  cross  piece. 
This  leaves  a  space  to  be  filled  in  flush. 

A  4-foot  walk  is  usually  cut  up  in  4-foot  lengths,  a  5-foot  in 
5  feet,  and  a  6-foot  in  6  feet.  The  spaces  may  be  arranged 
to  suit  the  length  of  the  walk,  but,  as  noted,  must  never  be 
longer  than  6  feet. 

Mixture.  —  Mix  as  directed  in  this  chapter,  using  a  propor- 
tion of  1,  2y2,  and  5,  and  1,  3,  5.  No  stone  or  gravel  should 
be  more  than  1%  inches  in  diameter. 

Tamp  lightly,  and  finish  up  to  within  1  inch  of  the  top  of 
the  guides.  When  the  cross  guides  are  lifted  put  a  piece  of 
tar  paper  against  the  new  concrete  to  keep  the  slabs  apart, 
and  allow  for  heaving  without  breaking,  if  it  does  take  place. 
Mark  exactly  where  the  division  comes,  so  that  the  wearing 
surface  may  be  cut  directly  above  the  tar  paper,  and  thus  a 
clean  cut  slab  be  obtained. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     289 

Single  Coat.  —  Sometimes  the  concrete  is  filled  up  clear  to 
the  top  of  the  guides  for  a  cheaper  sidewalk.  The  mixture  is 
made  1,  2,  3,  and  any  stones  that  appear  in  the  surface  are 
pressed  down  out  of  sight.  It  is  smoothed  over,  and  the  slabs 
cut  in  the  regular  way. 

The  slabs  are  better  if  made  about  14  inch  to  ys  inch  thicker 
in  the  center,  but  this  if  done  has  to  be  on  the  lower,  and  not 
the  wearing  surface. 

Wearing  Surface.  —  This  should  be  at  least  1  inch  thick  of 
Portland  cement  and  sand  or  stone  chips  that  will  pass  through 
a  i4-inch  mesh.  The  proportion  is  1  to  2.  It  should  be  mixed 
so  that  it  works  easily,  but  not  be  too  wet.  It  must  be  put 
on  in  not  more  than  50  minutes  from  the  time  the  concrete 
for  the  base  is  mixed.  An  expert  layer  can  easily  handle  the 
work  in  long  stretches,  but  amateurs  cannot  do  so,  and  too 
much  base  should  not  be  put  down  at  a  time. 

In  business  districts  a  surface  of  1%  inches  should  be  put 
on. 

Smoothing  Down.  —  When  the  top  material  is  laid  inside 
the  guides  take  a  straight-edge  and  run  it  across  and  work  the 
soft  mass  down  to  the  level.  Smooth  with  a  wooden 
float,  but  do  not  trowel  too  much.  Very  smooth  surfaces  are 
not  desirable  for  a  sidewalk.  The  regular  sidewalk  layers  run 
across  a  roller  that  indents  the  surface  and  roughens  it  a 
little.  When  the  grade  is  more  than  5  feet  to  the  100  this 
roughening  should  always  be  done. 

Rounding.  —  The  edges  of  the  slabs  should  be  slightly 
rounded.  The  cross  lines  are  rounded  also  by  a  special  tool 
that  the  layers  have,  but  this  can  be  done  with  an  ordinary 
trowel,  although  it  takes  longer  and  does  not  make  such  good 
work. 

Covering.  —  The  work  should  be  covered  with  straw,  grass, 
sawdust,  or  anything  that  will  not  injure  it.  Sand  is  the 
ordinary  material  used.  After  the  walk  is  all  finished,  it  is 
bad  practice  to  throw  on  pure  cement.  This  makes  it  harden 
sooner,  but  the  hardening  process  should  not  be  hastened.  The 
covering  should  be  left  on  for  several  days,  and  time  given  for 
hardening  in  the  natural  way.  In  the  hottest  weather  it  is  a 
good  idea  to  sprinkle  with  water  to  keep  back  the  drying 
process. 

Curb.  —  In  the  residence  parts  of  cities   there  is  often  a 


290    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

space  between  the  curb  and  the  walk  which  is  not  concreted. 
This  should  slope  from  the  curb  up  to  the  walk  at  about  %  inch 
to  the  foot,  and  the  walk  itself  should  be  raised  1%  inches 
higher  than  the  earth  or  sod  where  the  joint  is  made.  If  curb 
and  concrete  join  put  in  tar  paper. 

Trees.  —  All  over  cities  we  see  sidewalks  ruined  by  the  roots 
of  trees  thrusting  them  up.  Leave  a  space  of  12  inches  all 
around  a  tree  if  it  can  be  done.  There  is  no  use  trying  to  make 
a  fine  finish  against  the  roots,  for  it  simply  means  a  spoiled 
walk  in  a  few  years.  If  new  trees  are  set  out  they  should  really 
be  about  4  feet  clear  of  the  walk.  The  authorities  recommend 
that  some  kinds  of  trees  like  Carolina  poplar  and  elm  should 
be  set  10  feet  away. 


BASEMENT  FLOORS 

Method.  —  The  same  process  has  to  be  gone  through  for 
basement  floors  as  for  sidewalks.  But  properly  there  should 
be  only  one  slab  in  a  floor  without  any  division.  The  expert 
floormen  lay  them  that  way,  but  some  prefer  to  handle 
the  work  in  sections  running  the  full  length  of  the  base- 
ment. 

Dangers.  —  To  protect  from  rats  and  damp  every  house  in 
the  residence  district  of  a  city  should  have  a  concrete  floor 
at  least  3  inches  thick;  and  4  inches  should  be  used  for 
business  houses.  Really,  the  minimum  thicknesses  should 
be  4  inches  for  the  one  and  5  inches  for  the  other.  In  dwell- 
ings the  top  surfacing  should  be  at  least  y2  inch;  and  in 
business  buildings,  %  inch.  Again,  %  inch  and  1  inch  would 
be  better. 

The  Rat  Plague.  —  In  the  Technical  World  Magazine  for 
June,  1908,  we  read  that  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
estimates  the  yearly  loss  to  the  nation  through  damage  by  rats 
at  $56,000,000.  The  fire  loss  due  to  them  is  put  by  the  depart- 
ment at  $1,000,000,  but  by  the  Underwriters  at  $15,000,000. 
The  city  of  Washington  alone  loses  each  year,  apart  from  the 
fire  loss,  $200,000.  Rats  are  an  expensive  luxury. 

San  Francisco  wanted  an  ordinance  compelling  all  owners 
to  concrete  their  cellars  and  basements  to  keep  down  the 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    291 

bubonic  plague  which  is  spread  by  rats.     In  all  model  cities 
of  the  future  this  will  be  done. 

STUCCO  WORK 

Lumber  Prices.  —  Stucco  and  other  products  are  taking  the 
place  formerly  occupied  by  lumber,  which  is  now  too  high  in 
price.  So  much  of  this  work  is  done  that  a  short  description 
of  one  system  is  given  here. 

Weights.  —  Specify  the  weight  of  the  metal  lath  used  by 
the  square  foot  or  yard.  There  is  a  great  difference  in 
weights. 

Boarding.  —  In  dry  climates  the  lath  is  put  on  without  any 
boarding,  but  in  northern  States  it  is  safest  to  put  on  the 
regular  covering  on  the  studs.  Wood  lath  may  be  used  on  the 
inside  just  as  under  the  ordinary  system. 

(The  following  matter  is  from  the  Trussed  Concrete  Steel 
Co.,  Detroit.) 

"  Portland  cement  and  sand  or  prepared  plasters  compounded 
especially  for  exterior  work  are  the  best.  Ordinary  lime 
should  not  be  used  because  it  weakens  the  mixture  and 
materially  delays  the  set.  Hydrated  lime  (nothing  more  or 
less  than  a  carefully  and  scientifically  slaked  lime)  may  be 
used  in  the  first  coat  to  the  extent  of  10  per  cent,  of  the 
Portland  cement,  and  will  be  found  to  greatly  assist  the 
workman.  Prepared  plasters,  however,  should  be  used  in 
exact  accordance  with  the  instructions  of  the  manufacturer. 

There  are  three  popular  finishes  for  exterior  work — "  Float," 
"  Rough  Cast,"  and  "  Pebble  Dash." 

Float  finish  is  two-coat  work  and  is,  therefore,  the  cheapest 
of  the  three.  It  is  best  adapted  to  surfaces  of  small  area. 

Rough  Cast  and  Pebble  Dash  are  applied  in  the  third  coat 
and  are  to  be  had  in  great  variety  of  texture  and  color. 
Washed  pebbles,  crushed  stone,  and  even  cinders  are  used  to 
get  the  desired  effect. 

Cost  depends  largely  on  the  location  of  the  work,  the  amount 
of  scaffolding  required,  and  the  handling  of  the  door  and 
window  trim.  It  should  not,  however,  exceed  an  average  of 
$1.50  per  square  yard  of  surface  plastered  complete,  and  in 
small  towns  and  on  the  farm,  where  nearly  all  of  the  labor 
involved  in  putting  on  the  lath  and  getting  ready  for  the  plas- 


292    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

terer  is  done  by  the  owner,  it  should  be  much  less.  We  have 
a  record  of  this  work  having  been  done  as  low  as  62  cents  per 
square  yard." 

"  The  following  method  for  constructing  stucco  walls,  will 
give  by  far  the  best  results. 


Set  up  an  ordinary  "  balloon "  frame  structure  with  2x4 
studding  spaced  16  to  24  inches  apart,  and  put  all  temporary 
bracing  on  the  inside.  Along  the  outside  of  each  stud  tack 
strips  of  heavy  tarred  paper  6  inches  wide.  Paint  this  paper 
on  both  sides  with  Trus-Con  Bonding  Coat  No.  1.  On  the  out- 
side of  this  fasten  Hy-Rib  Sheathing  with  2%-inch  staples, 
and  drive  sixteen-penny  spikes  every  10%  inches  along  each 
stud,  as  shown.  Plaster  this  Hy-Rib  on  the  outside  with 
cement  mortar  properly  water-proofed  to  a  thickness  of  1% 
inches  and  give  it  any  finish  desired.  Then  back  plaster  the 
Hy-Rib  with  similar  mortar  to  a  thickness  of  about  half  an 
inch. 

This  construction  insures  absolute  protection  for  the  steel, 
and  when  the  mortar  has  set  you  have  a  2-inch  reinforced 
concrete  slab  solid  as  rock,  and  much  stronger  and  more  rigid 
than  the  ordinary  matched  sheathing  of  which  it  has  taken 
the  place. 

On  the  inside  of  the  studding  tack  thin  asbestos  board  or  a 
very  heavy  tarred  paper,  then  %"  x  %"  furring  strips,  and 
heavy  Rib-Lath,  on  which  plaster  a  %-inch  coat  of  cement 
mortar  or  good  plaster,  and  the  regular  finish  coat. 

In  this  way  you  have  secured  a  house  which  possesses  the 
following  advantages: 

1.  Practically  fire-proof,  due  to  the  heat-resisting  qualities 
of  the  2-inch  reinforced  concrete  slab  on  outside. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    293 

2.  Absolutely  waterproof  and  damp-proof. 

3.  Easy  to  heat  in  winter  and  keep  cool  in  summer,  owing 
to  the  double  air  space  in  the  wall. 

4.  Practically    indestructible,    owing   to   the   permanence   of 
the  reinforced  concrete  wall. 

5.  No  expense  for  maintenance,  such  as  painting,  repairs,  etc. 

6.  Unusual    architectural    beauty    because    of    the    artistic 
effects  that  can  be  secured  with  stucco. 

7.  Low  first  cost. 

The  method  outlined  above  gives  a  wall  of  almost  unlimited 
strength  and  rigidity,  and  is  suitable  for  large  buildings.  For 
small  cottages  and  for  structures  in  which  the  total  wind 
pressure  will  not  be  great,  some  saving  may  be  effected  by 
using  heavy  beaded  plate  Rib-Lath  in  place  of  Hy-Rib,  on  the 
outside,  plastering  it  in  the  same  manner  on  both  sides  to  a 
total  thickness  of  iy4  inches  or  more.  (In  this  stucco  con- 
struction it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  only  way  to  insure 
permanence  is  to  have  a  real  reinforced  concrete  slab  on  the 
outside.  Hy-Rib  is  necessary  for  medium  and  large  sized 
residences.  For  smaller  cottages  no  lath  weighing  less  than 
4y2  pounds  per  square  yard  is  strong  enough  to  properly 
reinforce  a  concrete  wall ) . 

Another  method  which  has  been  extensively  used  in  our 
colder  climates  is  to  place  on  the  outside  of  the  studding 
%-inch  matched  sheathing,  heavy  building  paper,  furring,  and 
Rib-Lath  plastered  1  inch  thick  with  cement  mortar  properly 
water-proofed.  This  method,  though  more  expensive,  has  not 
the  strength,  durability,  or  fire-proofness  of  the  method  first 
described. 

For  our  milder  climates  the  furring  may  be  omitted  in  the 
first  two  methods  described,  and  the  paper  sheathing  may  be 
omitted  in  all  three  cases.  This  reduces  the  cost  still  further. 

"  OVER-COATED  "    HOUSES 

The  ordinary  wooden  frame  house  can  be  given  a  cement 
exterior  by  applying  Rib-Lath,  and  plastering  with  cement. 
Such  a  house  has  an  artistic  appearance,  and  is  protected  from 
attacks  of  fire. 

Three-quarter-inch  furring  strips  16  inches  apart  should  be 
nailed  to  the  wooden  sheathing,  and  the  lath  applied  thereto. 


294    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

HOW  TO  APPLY  STUCCO 

For  the  first  scratch  coat  use  a  mortar  made  up  as  follows: 

Portland  cement 2  parts. 

Sand 5  parts. 

Cream  of  lime 1  part. 

Trus-Con  Waterproof  Filler — 2  Ibs.  per  bag  of  cement. 
Sufficient  hair  for  "  key." 

The  lime  should  be  slacked  with  plenty  of  water,  and  allowed 
to  stand  at  least  a  week.  Use  only  a  high  grade  of  Portland 
cement  and  sand  graded  from  coarse  to  fine.  Cement  and  sand 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  dry,  and  sufficient  water  added  to 
give  a  good  working  consistency.  Next  add  the  lime,  and  mix 
the  whole  thoroughly.  Remember  that  cement  starts  to  set  as 
soon  as  water  is  added,  and  apply  the  mortar  to  the  wall  as 
soon  after  mixing  as  possible.  Mix  only  so  much  mortar  as 
can  be  used  immediately.  Never  allow  it  to  stand  over  thirty 
minutes. 

When  the  first  coat  is  still  wet  scratch  over  the  entire  sur- 
face to  give  a  better  bond  to  the  finish  coat,  which  is  applied 
as  soon  as  the  first  coat  is  set  sufficiently  hard  to  hold  it. 
For  finish  coat  use  the  following  mixture: 

Cement 1  part. 

Sand 3  parts. 

Cream  of  lime 1  part. 

Trus-Con  Waterproof  Filler — 2  Ibs.  per  bag  of  cement. 

Protect  the  finished  work  from  too  rapid  drying  and  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  by  means  of  damp  canvas  or  sprinkling. 
Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  placed  on  the  importance  of 
keeping  the  stucco  well  moistened  for  at  least  two  days  after 
application. 

DATA  FOB   SPACING   AND   WEIGHTS 

Side  Walls  Ceilings 

Weight  of  Lath  Weight  of  Lath 

Spacing  of  Studs  per  sq.  yd.        Spacing  of  Studs  per  sq.  yd. 

12"    2.75  Ibs.  12"    3.25  Ibs. 

16"    3.25  Ibs.  16"    3.70  Ibs. 

18"    3.75  Ibs.  18"    4.50  Ibs. 

24"    4.50  Ibs.  24"    5.00  Ibs. 

All  lath  shall  be  painted. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    295 

COLOBING 

Coloring-matter  mixed  in  mortar  is  sometimes  used  to  give 
a  uniform  color  to  the  entire  wall.  The  cement,  sand,  and 
coloring-matter  are  mixed  together  dry,  and  it  is  advisable  to 
experiment  a  little  to  find  how  much  color  is  needed  to  give 
the  desired  shade.  The  mortar  will  appear  several  shades 
darker  while  wet  than  after  it  has  dried. 

The  Ohio  State  geologist  gave  the  following  table.  Three 
authorities  are  given,  and  this  explains  the  slight  difference 
in  allowances: 


MATERIALS   USED   IN   COLORING  MORTARS. 


Color                           Mineral 

Pounds  of  color 
to  100  pounds 
of  cement 

Pounds 
Color 
to  BB1. 
of  Ce- 
ment 

Gray  
Black  .... 
Black   .... 
Blue   
Green  .... 
Red  

Germantown  Lamp  Black 
Manganese  Dioxide 
Excelsior  Carbon  Black 
Ultramarine 
Ultramarine  Green 
Iron  Oxide 
Pompeian  or  English  Red 
Red-Purple  Oxide  of  Iron 
Violet  Oxide  of  Iron 
Roasted  Iron  Oxide  or 
Brown  Ochre 

Yellow  Ochre 

1-4 
12 
00 
5 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

6 
6 

1-2 
00 
2 
5  to  6 
6 
6  to  10 
6 
00 
00 

6 
6  to  10 

2 
48 
00 
20 
24 
24 
24 
24 
24 

24 
24 

Bright  Red 
Sandstone 
Violet  .... 
Brown  •  •  • 

Yellow   or 
Buff   ... 

By  mixing  five  pounds  of  coloring-matter  with  a  bag  of 
cement,  the  following  colors  are  obtained: 

Raw  iron  oxide  will  give  bright  red. 

Roasted  iron  oxide  will  give  brown. 

Ultramarine  will  give  bright  blue. 

Yellow  ochre  will  give  buff  to  yellow. 

Carbon  black  or  lampblack  will  give  gray  to  dark  slate. 

Manganese  dioxide  will  give  black.  (Use  eleven  pounds  per 
bag  of  cement. ) 


296     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  carbon  black  and  red  iron  ore 
gives  dull  reds.  In  all  cases  the  addition  of  mineral  colors 
causes  a  loss  of  strength,  but  this  is  not  important,  since  the 
color  is  used  only  in  the  surface  coat.  Lighter  shades  may  be 
obtained  by  using  y2  to  |  the  quantities  of  coloring-matter 
given  above. 

The  additional  expense  of  coloring  a  surface  layer  %  of  an 
inch  thick  will  vary  from  half  a  cent  to  two  cents  per  square 
foot. 

WATER-PROOFING 

Proportions.  —  For  ordinary  protection  use  a  mixture  of  1, 
2,  and  4;  for  better  work,  1,  iy2,  and  3.  Mix  to  a  mass  like 
jelly,  but  not  too  wet,  and  it  will  serve  for  retaining  walls, 
tanks,  and  such  work  without  further  trouble.  This  means  a 
packed  barrel  basis. 

Lime.  —  In  reservoir  work  10  per  cent,  of  hydrated  lime,  or 
lime  mixed  to  a  paste  with  pure  water,  is  sometimes  added 
to  the  concrete  for  a  safer  waterproof  mixture.  But  this  is 
only  on  the  top  surfacing,  and  not  as  a  part  of  the  mortar 
for  the  masonry.  For  this  Portland  cement  mortar  alone  is 
best. 

Plastering.  —  On  the  outside  walls  of  houses  below  grade 
in  damp  climates  a  thin  coat  of  Portland  cement  mortar, 
1  to  2,  or  at  most,  3,  should  be  put  on.  This  is  an  excellent 
safeguard. 

Floors.  —  With  floors  exposed  to  dampness,  or  to  any  risk  of 
water  rising,  there  must  be  no  joints.  The  slab  must  be  con- 
tinuous, just  as  it  always  is  when  laid  by  a  regular  cement 
worker.  The  easier  way  of  laying  in  long  slabs  already 
spoken  of  does  not  apply  where  there  is  moisture  to  contend 
against. 

Felt.  —  An  ordinary  method  of  protecting  floors  of  this  kind 
is  to  lay  a  few  inches  of  concrete  for  a  bed,  preferably  on 
cinders,  then  3  or  4  plies  of  felt  well  saturated  with  asphalt, 
and  put  several  inches  of  concrete  on  top  in  the  regular  way. 
The  felt  must  be  made  continuous  in  the  manner  used  for  a 
gravel  roof,  and  it  must  also  be  carried  up  on  the  sides  of 
walls,  columns,  machine  foundations,  etc.,  for  a  height  of 
6  or  8  inches.  The  footings  of  columns  are  protected  in  the 
same  way.  The  whole  idea  is  not  to  leave  a  crevice  at  any 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     297 

point  where  the  water  can  force  its  way  up.  The  felt  must  be 
as  carefully  joined  as  for  a  roof. 

Thickness.  —  The  thickness  of  concrete  depends  upon  the 
pressure  of  the  water.  In  an  ordinary  soil  2  inches  below 
the  felt,  and  3  inches  above  is  enough.  Twice  as  much  might 
be  necessary. 

Cement  Fillers.  —  There  are  several  preparations  to  keep 
down  damp  and  dust  on  cement  floors.  In  garage  floors  the 
oil  should  not  be  allowed  to  penetrate  the  surface. 

Damp  Course.  —  In  masonry  after  the  footings  are  up  about 
a  foot  a  course  of  boiled  asphalt  is  often  spread  over  to  keep 
down  damp. 


CHAPTER  VII 

CONSTRUCTION  NOTES  FROM  THE  SAN  FRANCISCO 
FIRE 

Experts.  —  Richard  L.  Humphrey  of  the  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  and  Major  Sewell  of  the  Engineers,  who  had  in- 
vestigated Baltimore,  were  sent  to  San  Francisco  to  make  a 
report  for  the  United  States  Government. 

First  of  all  come  some  notes  from  Mr.  Humphrey's  report: 

Inferior  Work.  —  The  first  conclusion  he  reaches  is  that 
except  at  the  very  tract  of  the  earthquake  all  buildings  would 
have  been  saved  from  damage  had  they  been  properly  con- 
structed. This  is  rather  a  serious  charge  against  the  building 
fraternity,  and  especially  against  architects,  who  are  re- 
sponsible for  the  quality  of  the  work.  Of  what  use  is  artistic 
decoration  if  the  construction  is  bad?  I  would  rather  own 
an  inartistic  building  that  sto.od  than  an  artistic  one  that  was 
needlessly  destroyed.  Contractors  who  learn  from  this  book 
to  put  up  a  safe  building  are  at  least  as  far  on  the  road  to 
perfection  as  those  who  can  decorate  poor  construction. 

In  San  Francisco  an  army  of  200,000  people  was  rendered 
homeless,  490  blocks,  or  4  square  miles  were  burned,  and  there 
was  a  loss  of  about  $500,000,000,  with  only  half  of  it  insured. 
Nearly  all  the  fireproof  buildings  were  gutted. 

Reinforced  Structures.  —  These  were  few  and  stood  the  test 
remarkably  well.  Wooden  buildings  stood  well,  the  chief  dam- 
age being  to  chimneys  and  plaster.  The  destruction  was 
greatest  on  filled  ground. 

Mortar  and  Anchoring.  —  Now  we  come  to  the  standard 
trouble  of  these  United  States  in  the  building  lines: 

On  First  Street  "  lime  mortar,  flimsy  framing,  poor  design, 
and  lack  of  tie  between  floor  and  roof  members  and  walls  were 
the  causes  of  these  failures." 

In  the  Stanford  University  "  the  roof  trusses  were  not 
anchored  to  the  walls,  but  butted  against  them;  the  floor  joists 
rested  in  the  walls  and  were  not  tied.  Under  the  vibration 

298 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    299 

the  walls  were  pushed  out  of  plumb  and,  having  no  proper 
connection  with  the  floor  and  roof  members,  collapsed." 

In  another  building  "  the  concrete  block  walls  13  inches 
thick,  laid  in  cement  mortar,  were  not  braced  in  any  way — the 
joists  iy2  by  13,  simply  resting  upon  the  wall.  When  the 
building  vibrated,  the  wall  was  pushed  out,  and  collapsed 
because  there  was  nothing  to  restore  it  to  its  normal  position." 

"  The  city  hall,  the  court-house,  the  Masonic  Temple,  the 
Keegan-Brush  building,  and  the  St.  Rose  Hotel  were  all  com- 
pletely wrecked,  and  added  their  testimony  against  poor 
mortar  in  brickwork,  light  wooden  frames,  and  insufficient 
bracing." 

"  The  brick  walls  which  failed  were  laid  in  lime  mortar 
with  few  header  courses,  and  generally  had  wooden  frames 
with  little  or  no  tie  to  the  walls.  Where  the  walls  were  laid 
with  hard  brick,  with  plenty  of  headers  and  with  Portland 
cement  mortar,  and  were  properly  tied  to  the  roof  and  floor 
members  there  was  little  if  any  damage." 

All  through,  it  is  a  story  of  bad  mortar  and  wrorse  anchorage. 

The  Sewell  report  says :  "  As  a  rule  brickwork  in  San  Fran- 
cisco was  laid  in  lime  mortar  or  in  lime  mortar  gaged  with  a 
small  amount  of  Portland  cement.  Wherever  such  masonry 
was  subjected  to  serious  earthquake  shocks  it  was  very  badly 
shattered.  Much  of  it  came  down  in  the  ruins,  and  much  of 
that  which  remained  in  place  was  reduced  to  a  loose  pile, 
without  any  adhesion  between  the  mortar  and  the  bricks. 
Where  brickwork  was  solidly  laid  up  in  good  Portland  cement 
mortar,  the  damage  generally  appeared  in  the  form  of  well 
defined  cracks,  which  could  have  been  easily  pointed  up,  so  as 
to  leave  the  wall  almost  as  good  as  it  was  before." 

Yet  we  have  the  "  stop-watch  "  heroes  shouting,  "  Faster ! 
Faster!  "  to  the  bricklayers.  We  require  better  work,  and  not 
more  of  it. 

Headers.  —  The  outside  courses  of  pressed  brick  fell  off 
entirely  in  Baltimore  and  San  Francisco.  But  there  was  no 
damage  done  to  eight  or  ten  houses  observed  with  a  Flemish 
bond  front.  This  means  that  headers  should  run  clear  through 
the  finest  fronts,  and  that  metal  ties,  back  bonding  and  such 
secret  connections  do  not  amount  to  much. 

Reinforced  Concrete.  —  As  already  said,  these  structures 
stood  the  test  remarkably  well.  "  Where  reinforced  concrete 


300     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

was  used  the  ceilings  were  free  from  cracks.  The  excellent 
qualities  of  reinforced  concrete  and  its  ability  to  stand  earth- 
quake shock  were  strongly  demonstrated."  (Humphrey.) 

"  Within  a  few  feet  is  the  bell  tower,  a  reinforced  concrete 
structure,  80  feet  high,  with  walls  4  inches  thick,  which  was 
not  damaged  in  the  slightest  degree."  (H.) 

"  The  %-inch  or  1-inch  thickness  of  concrete  which  covered 
the  reinforcing  bars  proved  insufficient  in  the  basement,  where 
the  fire  was  fairly  hot.  The  heat  expanded  the  bars,  thereby 
ripping  off  the  concrete  layer,  and  leaving  the  rods  exposed." 
(H.) 

In  the  10-story  Aronson  building  "  two  columns  in  the  base- 
ment were  fire-proofed  with  concrete,  and  remain  in  first-class 
shape,  but  near  them  are  two  badly  buckled  columns  which 
were  fire-proofed  with  terra  cotta.  The  result  is  an  excellent 
object  lesson  on  the  merits  of  the  two  systems  of  fire-proofing." 
(H.) 

"  The  walls  of  the  Bekins  Building  were  badly  cracked  by 
the  earthquake,  but  the  reinforced  concrete  was  not  injured." 
(H.) 

In  the  Bullock  and  Jones  building,  "  the  hollow  tile  failed 
badly."  (H.) 

In  the  Pacific  States  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company's 
building  "  the  girders  and  columns  supporting  the  floors  were 
fire-proofed  with  concrete,  and  were  in  excellent  shape  after 
the  fire." 

"  Concrete  is  probably  the  best  fire-proofing  material."     (H.) 

"  Brickwork  suffered  most  from  the  earthquake,  and  least 
from  fire.  Concrete  proved  superior  to  brick  as  a  fire-proof 
medium."  (H.) 

"  The  lower  webs  of  floor  tile  came  off  to  perhaps  a  greater 
extent  than  in  the  Baltimore  fire." 

"  Of  the  fire  loss  perhaps  75  per  cent,  was  in  the  trim  and 
ornamental  work."  Artistic  architects  are  expensive  luxuries. 
Business  buildings  should  be  put  up  in  what  might  be  called 
the  battleship  type — stripped  for  action,  with  no  useless  orna- 
ment. The  Beaux  Arts  graduates  have  been  a  sore  expense 
to  owners,  in  the  first  place,  and  to  a  long-suffering  public 
in  the  next. 

"  The  cinder  concrete  floor  slabs  in  many  buildings  were 
protected  for  a  time  by  furred  ceilings.  Where  the  ceilings 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    301 

failed  the  damage  to  the  concrete  floor  slabs  was  very  apparent. 
Most  of  the  cinder  concrete  used  in  San  Francisco  was  evi- 
dently a  very  inferior  article  in  the  first  place."  (Sewell.) 

"  Of  all  the  structures  which  were  manifestly  exposed  to 
severe  shock  the  concrete  buildings  at  Palo  Alto  stood 
best."  (S.) 

"  The  results  at  Baltimore  and  San  Francisco  did  not,  by  any 
means,  indicate  that  either  hollow  tile  or  concrete  is  altogether 
a  failure  or  altogether  a  success.  Both  fires  indicated  very 
clearly  that  commercial  methods  of  applying  both  materials 
are  inadequate,  but  also  that  successful  results  can  be  attained 
with  both  materials.  ...  It  would  seem  that  wherever 
reinforced  concrete  floor  construction  is  used  a  heavy  furred 
ceiling  below  it  should  be  absolutely  required."  (S.) 

"  For  buildings  of  moderate  height,  say  up  to  125  feet  as 
an  extreme  limit,  reinforced  concrete  alone  can  undoubtedly 
be  so  designed  as  to  give  very  good  results  when  subjected  to 
either  earthquake  or  fire."  (S'.) 

"  Reinforced  concrete  proved  itself  superior  to  brick  beyond 
any  doubt,  but  neither  concrete  nor  terra-cotta  won  the  fight. 
It  was  a  *  draw.'  "  ( S. ) 

Another  government  expert,  Mr.  Soule,  stands  for  structural 
steel.  He  says :  "  Constructors  in  San  Francisco  feel  that  this 
material  has  safely  and  triumphantly  passed  through  a  most 
trying  ordeal." 

Those  who  have  Carpentry  and  Building  for  May,  1907, 
will  find  an  excellent  report  on  the  fire  by  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

In  general,  it  might  all  be  summed  up  in  poor  design,  poor 
superintendence,  poor  workmanship,  because  too  hurried,  and 
poor  materials. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
A  SHOET  CHAPTER 

Plumbing  is  gone  into  in  "  The  New  Building  Estimator," 
and  is  therefore  not  discussed  here.  So  also  is  heating.  With 
respect  to  heating  I  think  we  are  far  behind  the  times.  Proba- 
bly a  change  is  coming.  I  have  given  prices  on  furnaces,  etc., 
in  the  "Estimator,"  but  their  day  may  be  gone  in  cities  in 
the  near  future. 

We  are  told  that  the  city  of  Omaha,  with  125,000  people, 
burns  on  an  average  70  pounds  of  coal  per  family  per  day 
for  residences  alone;  and  that  100  pounds  is  about  right  for 
a  two-story  house.  It  is  estimated  that  for  business  blocks 
and  all  other  heating  the  daily  average  of  this  city  is  3,000 
tons  in  cold  weather.  At  least  one-fourth  of  it  is  hard  coal 
at  $11  per  ton.  The  total  bill  is  said  to  be  about  $17,250  per 
day. 

In  all  new  villages  and  towns  each  one  has  to  sink  a  well, 
and,  if  he  wants  it,  a  cesspool.  Kerosene  lamps  make  the 
illuminant  for  each  individual  house.  Later  on  the  city  water 
is  "  laid  on,"  in  the  old  phrase,  and  what  was  individually 
done  is  now  done  by  all  together.  They  have  made  wonderful 
progress,  and  instead  of  drinking  water  too  often  befouled 
with  sewage  from  cesspools  they  drink  pure  water  from  the 
same  canteen,  or  reservoir.  Later  still  comes  gas;  and  then 
sewers,  and  a  new  "  metropolis  "  of  somewhere  is  on  the  map. 

We  have  since  wondered  why  we  were  so  long  in  adopting 
open  plumbing;  another  wonder  in  a  few  years  will  be  why 
we  were  so  long  in  putting  in  a  heating  system  for  cities  just 
the  same  as  one  for  water,  sewerage,  telephones,  electric  light, 
gas,  or  anything  else. 

I  heard  of  one  place  that  does  this,  and  thought  that  a  few 
notes  on  the  subject  would  interest  builders.  This  is  Oak 
Park,  111.  I  wrote  for  some  information  of  this  interesting 

302 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     303 

system  which  will  probably  be  adopted  by  all  progressive 
cities  in  the  future. 

When  in  railroad  work  I  noticed  that  long  lines  of  steam 
pipes  were  laid — some  of  them  about  half  a  mile.  This  Oak 
Park  line  extends  for  a  mile  from  the  power-house.  A  central 
station  could  heat  a  mile  in  every  direction,  and  this  of  itself 
would  take  in  a  city  of  50,000  or  60,000  people. 

But  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  have  such  a  large  power- 
house as  that  would  mean.  Half  a  dozen  could  be  placed  near 
the  railroad  tracks  or  switches  if  necessary.  Our  heating  en- 
gineers could  easily  plan  a  city  heating  system. 

The  Oak  Park  heating  is  by  hot  water  for  the  residence 
section,  and  steam  close  to  the  power-house.  There  are  nearly 
700  buildings  served  by  the  system.  The  same  company  fur- 
nishes electricity,  and  the  exhaust  steam  is  utilized. 

A  cheap  coal  can  be  used.  The  $11  per  ton  kind  runs  too 
deep  in  the  bank  account  for  ordinary  boiler  work. 

The  cost  is  the  interesting  feature.  For  a  7  or  8-room  house 
heated  as  it  should  be  by  a  furnace,  about  a  ton  per  room  of 
hard  coal  is  required.  Some  in  sheltered  locations  and  not 
too  much  zero  weather  take  less.  Allow  7  tons  for  illustration. 
At  $10  this  means  $70,  and  taking  in  coal  and  out  ashes,  with 
a  vast  amount  of  responsibility  for  keeping  the  house  warm. 
A  man's  time  at  home  is  figured  like  a  woman's — of  small 
account.  Let  us  put  it  at  $1  per  month,  making  a  total  of 
$75  for  about  5  months — for  not  more  than  six,  at  worst  or 
best. 

The  Oak  Park  rate  is  f  cent  per  cubic  foot  heated.  This 
is  for  the  outside  measure  of  the  first  and  second  floors  only. 
If  heat  is  wanted  in  the  basement  or  attic  it  must  be  paid 
for  at  the  rate  of  20  cents  per  square  foot  of  radiation. 

The  season  lasts  8%  months — from  September  15  to  June  1. 
Taking  a  house  of  the  average  kind  built  for  a  small  family 
the  cost  would  be  about  $55  for  the  season. 

There  is  no  coal  to  be  taken  in.  There  are  no  ashes  to  be 
taken  out.  What  do  you  think  of  it? 

There  are  many  such  plants,  but  this  one  at  Oak  Park  is 
the  largest,  I  have  been  informed.  There  are  several  in 
Toledo,  Ohio,  and  one  in  Detroit. 

The  difficulty  comes  with  our  system  of  land  tenure.  There 
is  too  much  speculation,  and  such  cities  as  Omaha,  for  ex- 


304    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

ample,  cover  just  about  four  or  five  times  more  territory  than 
they  should.  This  would  make  the  work  of  installation 
expensive. 

But  in  a  model  city  with  every  lot  occupied,  while  yet 
giving  plenty  of  room  for  ventilation,  and  better  assurance  of 
fire  protection  than  in  cities  now  where  scores  of  houses  are 
built  within  two  feet  of  each  other,  such  a  system  would  be 
a  success. 

Let  the  "  American  Radiator  "  finish  this  chapter  and  this 
Book  II  by  telling  you  which  system  is  the  best: 


HOW     BEST     TO    WARM     OUR     HOMES. 


HOT    AIR 

STEAM 

HOT   WATER 

First   Cost  

Small 

Moderate 

Coal    Consumption  
Average    Durability... 
Heat     Distribution.... 
Temperature     

18%    Tons 
12    Years 
Uneven,    Difficult 
Variable 

13%    Tons 
Indestructible 
Positive 
Uniform 

10     Tons 
Indestructible 
Unsurpassed 

Ventilation         

Bad,    Draughty 

A-l  with  Indirects 

A-l  with  Indirects 

Quality  of  Heated  Air 
Dust   and    Dirt  
Danger    of    Fire  
Danger   of   Explosion. 
Noise 

Scorched,    Burned 
Much 
Little 
Slight 

Good 
None 
None 
None 

Genial    and    Fresh 
None 
None 
None 

Management    
Relative    Cost    of    Ap- 
paratus     

Troublesome 
9 

Easy,    Automatic 
13 

Easy,    Automatic 
15 

Fuel    Economy  

Extravagant 

Reasonable 

Full    Value 

BOOK  in 

THE  CONTRACTOR  AS  A  TAXPAYER 

CHAPTER  I 
FIRE  LOSS  AND  SAFE  BUILDING 

Over  one-fourth  to  one-half  of  our  new  buildings  we  might 
put  up  the  sign,  BUILDINGS  TO  BURN. 

The  loss  in  the  United  States  for  the  year  1907  was  $456,- 
485,000.  No,  that  was  not  the  San  Francisco  year.  That  one 
cost  about  $300,000,000  more. 

In  the  face  of  such  frightful  waste  we  have  a  class  rising 
in  the  building  world  who  seem  to  have  the  brains  of  excitable, 
thoughtless  schoolboys  in  the  bodies  of  men.  They  are  around 
with  their  stop  watches  and  their  flags  trying  to  get  "  every 
ounce  of  energy  "  out  of  building  tradesmen,  who,  at  worst, 
cannot  have  less  good  common  sense  than  their  tireless,  fault- 
finding critics.  To  the  ordinary  observer  there  does  not  seem 
to  be  much  use  in  "  speeding  up  "  merely  to  feed  the  fire. 

One  investigator  says  that  our  annual  average  loss,  taking 
everything  into  account  as  well  as  the  fire  loss  proper,  is 
$600,000,000.  That  seemed  unreasonable,  yet  in  February, 
1910,  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  after  a  careful  investiga- 
tion, gave  out  the  figures  for  the  year  1907  as  $456,485,000. 

In  that  year  the  cost  of  building  in  49  leading  cities 
amounted  to  $661,976,286  for  a  population  of  less  than 
13,000,000.  The  cost  of  the  new  construction  in  the  entire 
country  is  conservatively  set  at  $1,000,000,000.  So  it  appears 
that  in  an  average  year  we  lose  about  half  as  much  as  we 
build,  when  we  consider  the  cost  of  maintaining  fire  depart- 
ments, the  amount  of  insurance  premiums  paid  less  the  amount 
returned,  the  cost  of  protective  agencies,  the  additional  cost 
of  water  supplies,  and  other  factors. 

Yet  at   least  half   of   it  need  not  afflict  us.     With  proper 

305 


306     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

laws  and  care  probably  three-fourths  of  it  might  end.  In  the 
city  of  Berlin,  for  example,  the  annual  fire  loss  averages 
$150,000.  In  Chicago  it  runs  to  $5,000,000.  Berlin  has  3,000,- 
000  people,  and  Chicago  2,000,000.  This  means  that  the  busi- 
ness men  of  Chicago,  who  really  control  matters,  are  not 
nearly  so  capable  as  the  men  of  Berlin.  When  they  can  bring 
the  loss  down  to  $450,000  a  year,  which  is  the  Berlin  loss 
multiplied  by  4%,  taking  population  into  account,  they  may 
begin  to  get  into  a  higher  classification  so  far  as  ability  is 
concerned. 

The  fire  loss  in  several  European  countries  is  33  cents  per 
capita.  In  the  United  States  it  is  $2.70.  This  is  only  the 
fire  loss  proper. 

The  United  States  government  beats  the  average  business 
man  "  all  hollow."  There  are  now  about  $300,000,000  worth  of 
fireproof  buildings  owned  by  the  government,  and  no  insur- 
ance is  carried  on  them.  It  would  cost  too  much  to  insure 
them.  There  is  a  cheaper  way,  and  that  is  to  make  them 
safe.  About  $20,000,000  a  year  are  added  to  the  U.  S.  building 
values  for  new  construction. 

Cost  of  Fire.  —  It  is  pathetic  in  a  way,  disgusting  in  an- 
other, to  think  that  there  are  so  many  people  who  imagine 
that  fire  losses  fall  merely  on  the  merchants  who  are  burned 
out,  or  upon  the  insurance  companies.  They  fall  on  every 
citizen.  When  there  are  too  many  fires  in  a  town,  and  the 
equipment  is  out  of  date,  it  means  either  new  equipment,  and 
consequently  higher  taxes,  or  else  higher  insurance  rates. 
When  the  rates  go  up  the  rents  go  up,  and  so  do  the  dry 
goods  and  other  necessities.  Some  say,  "  Oh,  the  insurance 
companies  are  rich.  They  can  stand  it."  Or,  "  It  will  give 
work."  The  insurance  people  transfer  the  cost  to  the  in- 
sured, as  far  as  they  can;  and  they  in  their  turn  raise  the 
price  of  their  goods.  Rebuilding  undoubtedly  gives  work,  but 
what  kind  of  work?  Necessary,  or  useless?  How  would  it  do 
to  build  a  pyramid  in  each  state?  Would  that  not  give  work? 

In  33  years  the  loss  from  fire  proper  has  amounted  to 
$4,500,000,000.  But  from  1872  to  1882  the  losses  ran  to  only 
about  $75,000,000  a  year.  Most  of  the  trouble  comes  from 
frame  buildings.  How  would  it  do  to  follow  the  plan  of 
Denver  and  forbid  them  altogether? 

Number  of  Fires.  —  In  43  European  cities  there  are  .86  fires 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    307 

to  the  1,000  population.  In  the  United  States,  4.05,  or  between 
4  and  5  times  as  many.  In  London  with  a  far  larger  popula- 
tion than  New  York  there  are  3,843  fires  in  a  year,  while  New 
York  has  12,182. 

.Foot  Power  versus  Horse  Power.  —  When  serving  my  appren- 
ticeship in  a  Scotch  town  of  20,000  people  I  was  always 
anxious  to  see  a  fire,  but  never  had  the  pleasure  during  6 
years — one  as  a  journeyman.  There  were  a  few  in  that 
period,  but  my  luck  was  against  me.  But  I  had  not  long  to 
wait  when  I  reached  the  United  States. 

I  remember  that  we  were  once  working  on  a  building  3 
or  4  miles  from  town.  One  of  the  "  firemen  "  was  a  carpenter 
working  with  us.  On  looking  townward  we  thought  that 
smoke  was  rising  in  the  air.  The  fireman  laid  down  his  tools 
and  walked  and  ran  to  town  to  do  his  part. 

That  kind  of  a  department  looks  rather  funny,  but  whether 
is  it  better  to  so  build  as  to  make  fires  next  to  impossible 
or  to  expend  millions  in  getting  the  finest  fire  departments 
in  the  world,  as  American  ones  are,  merely  to  keep  down 
flames  that  should  never  rise?  Instead  of  being  proud  of  our 
fire  departments  we  should  look  upon  them  as  our  disgrace. 
But  when  we  build  60  per  cent,  frame  in  1908  and  only  2i/4 
per  cent,  fireproof  we  are  providing  more  trouble  and  exciting 
runs  for  the  departments.  Only  about  .005  per  cent,  of  the 
buildings  in  the  United  States  are  fireproof.  Why  should  we 
be  surprised  when  a  great  conflagration  like  that  of  San 
Francisco  raises  our  per  capita  waste  from  fire  proper  to 
more  than  $6?  One  of  the  greatest  wastes  is  seldom  calcu- 
lated, and  that  is  the  loss  and  disarrangement  through  inter- 
rupted business. 

Building  Codes.  —  Some  years  ago  I  went  over  a  dozen 
codes  for  a  particular  purpose,  and  a  few  suggestions  will  be 
of  service  here  as  to  how  they  might  be  improved.  Especially 
will  this  be  true  for  country  districts  and  farmhouse  work 
where  codes  do  not  apply. 

Distance  Between  Walls.  —  In  almost  all  cities  we  see 
frame  houses  within  two  feet  of  each  other,  and  the  cornices 
touching.  A  law  forbidding  a  less  distance  than  8  feet  between 
the  walls  and  5  feet  between  the  cornices  would  be  of  much 
value  for  fire  protection,  light,  and  ventilation.  A  distance 
of  10  feet  would  be  better,  we  all  know,  but  we  cannot  go  so 


308     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

far.  There  are  many  who  have  to  be  content  with  a  half  lot, 
and  paving  and  other  improvements  cost  money.  The  smallest 
possible  frontage  has  to  be  made  to  serve,  and  we  could  not 
cut  10  feet  off  some  lots. 

The  cornices  in  the  above  suggested  law  are  restricted  to 
18  inches.  They  are  now  made  nearly  twice  as  wide.  They 
are  like  the  "  Merry  Widow "  hats.  We  see  some  of  them 
about  4  feet  wide  on  bungalows.  If  there  is  plenty  room  on 
the  lot  that  is  the  owner's  business,  but  no  one  has  the  right 
to  start  a  conflagration,  and  on  small  lots  no  cornice  should 
come  nearer  to  the  other  than  5  feet.  Personally  I  should 
like  to  mak"!  it  8  feet. 

In  the  new  model  city  which  I  have  been  trying  to  interest 
people  in  for  some  time,  there  would  be  a  chance  of  beginning 
with  a  good  code.  Land  would  be  cheap,  and  cornices  could 
have  10  feet  between  them  at  the  nearest  point. 

Masonry  houses  take  fire  through  the  openings.  The  same 
distance  should  be  observed  with.  them.  Of  course  as  long  as 
the  building  laws  allow  us  we  are  going  to  use  all  our  ground. 
In  man}''  cities  we  are  allowed  to  go  within  18  inches  of  the 
lot  line.  For  two  houses  at  that  distance  this  means  cornices 
almost  touching. 

Shingles.  —  It  would  be  difficult  to  say  too  much  in  favor  of 
what  the  wood  shingle  has  done  for  the  United  States.  It  has 
supplied  a  cheap  and  excellent  roof  covering  for  generations. 
It  is  light,  warm,  and  looks  well — but  it  is  too  dangerous  in 
cities  on  account  of  fire.  The  Underwriters  want  laws  for- 
bidding the  use  of  shingles.  It  is  not  likely  that  in  such  states 
as  Washington  and  Oregon,  where  lumber  is  still  reasonable 
in  price,  that  their  desire  will  be  granted,  but  good  shingles 
cost  so  much  now  in  many  parts  of  the  country  that  substi- 
tutes are  being  used  far  more  than  formerly.  Taking  every- 
thing into  consideration,  it  would  now  pay  a  city  far  distant 
from  the  lumber  fields  to  bid  a  sorrowful  farewell  to  the  wood 
shingles  of  the  fathers,  and  turn  to  other  materials,  such  as 
tin,  galvanized  iron,  asphalt,  and  asbestos  cement  shingles. 

Siding.  —  This  product  is  also  becoming  too  high  priced,  and 
thousands  of  houses  are  now  covered  with  plasters  of  various 
kinds.  One  of  the  coming  orders  to  the  building  trades,  far 
from  lumber  districts,  is  to  use  as  little  wood  as  possible,  and 
put  unburnable  materials  in  its  place.  In  a  really  model  code, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    309 

if  frame  houses  were  allowed  at  all,  wood  siding  would  be 
forbidden  unless  far  away  from  fire  and  risk. 

Yet  it  is  with  a  feeling  of  sorrow  that  we  think  of  the  time 
when  the  fine  American  wood  house  will  be  a  rarity.  Apart 
from  fire  risk  there  is  no  healthier  and  better  looking  house 
built. 

Reinforced  Walls.  —  The  expanded  metal  companies  are  now 
strongly  advertising  houses  built  practically  without  studding 
and  sheeting.  They  use  only  a  few  studs  for  floor  supports, 
put  on  expanded  metal  lath,  and  plaster  outside  and  inside  with 
tar  paper  between,  and  this  makes  the  wall,  usually  with  a 
double  air  space.  As  the  carpenter  goes  out  the  plasterer 
comes  in. 

Properly  built  this  style  may  take  the  place  of  the  wooden 
walls.  For  some  years  I  ran  across  quite  a  number  of  plans 
for  wood  ice-houses.  When  I  began  on  the  first  plan  I  wanted 
to  fill  in  the  air  space  with  sawdust  as  I  had  built  refrigerators, 
but  was  told  that  the  air  space  was  left  unfilled.  The  reliance 
is  put  on  thicknesses  of  paper  to  exclude  air.  Now,  if  paper 
will  keep  out  hot  air  it  will  do  the  same  thing  for  cold  air. 
The  main  thing  is  to  make  the  insulation  perfect.  This  means 
that  boarding  would  be  no  longer  used. 

Brick  Openings.  —  Have  as  few  openings  in  interior  brick 
walls  as  possible.  Fill  up  with  masonry  those  that  are  not 
indispensable,  and  put  fire  doors  on  the  others.  Make  these 
doors  of  two  thicknesses  of  crossed  flooring  covered  with  I.  C. 
tin,  lock-jointed  and  not  soldered.  The  door  must  be  covered 
all  around,  including  the  edges. 

Hang  on  barn  door  rollers  like  a  sliding  door,  and  hold  them 
in  place  with  a  fusible  link  that  will  melt  when  the  fire  starts, 
and  let  the  door  roll  down  its  inclined  track  over  the  opening. 

Parapet  and  Dividing  Walls.  —  Run  up  exterior  walls  about 
3  feet  above  the  roof  on  a  flat  building,  and  the  division  walls 
at  least  2  feet. 

Metal  Frames.  —  Do  not  use  wood  frames  or  sash  in  build- 
ings that  are  exposed  to  danger  from  the  outside.  Put  in 
metal  frames  and  sash  filled  with  wire  glass.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  front  door,  which  is  expected  to  be  of  a  some- 
what ornamental  nature,  fill  all  door  openings  with  double 
flooring  covered  with  tin.  If  any  lights  are  used  in  them  they 
should  be  wire  glass.  This  applies  to  business  buildings. 


310     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Size  of  Glass.  —  The  Underwriters  do  not  allow  any  window 
that  measures  more  than  45  square  feet  in  area,  or  more  than 
5  feet  wide  x  9  feet  high.  These  dimensions  must  not  be  ex- 
ceeded, no  matter  if  the  area  is  less  than  45  square  feet.  For 
example,  a  window  4x10  or  6x7  would  not  be  allowed. 

If  wider  windows  are  required  there  must  be  a  mullion  with 
a  5-inch  I-beam  covered  all  around  with  at  least  2  inches  of 
concrete. 

No  light  of  glass  should  be  more  than  40  inches  wide  or 
48  inches  long,  or  exceed  720  square  inches. 

Shutters.  —  Iron  shutters  are  used  on  many  buildings.  The 
danger  is  that  they  are  left  open.  To  be  of  any  account  they 
should  be  closed  every  night.  Wire  glass  is  always  in  shape 
to  resist  a  fire.  Sometimes  these  shutters  are  swung  in  the 
regular  wray  on  hinges,  and  again  they  are  arranged  on 
batteries  on  rollers  to  be  operated  with  a  crank  that  closes 
an  entire  side  of  a  floor. 

Kolling  Shutters  for  Stores.  —  The  retail  districts  in  Amer- 
ican cities  look  much  pleasanter  in  the  evening  after  business 
hours  than  those  of  Europe,  for  nearly  all  the  windows 
are  left  well  lighted.  Many  of  the  retailers  here  have 
gone  back  to  the  European  system  of  rolling  shutters,  how- 
ever. They  make  a  good  fire  guard,  and  save  breakage  of 
glass. 

Stairways.  —  One  of  the  great  safeguards  from  fire  in 
business  buildings  or  private  residences  is  to  enclose  the  stairs 
and  shut  off  one  story  from  another.  This  plan  should  be 
enforced  in  all  business  buildings,  boarding  houses,  some  kinds 
of  hotels,  and  probably  schools,  but  would  not  be  accepted  in 
private  residences.  The  stair  hall  is  looked  upon  as  an  orna- 
ment of  the  house,  and  most  people  would  object  to  enclosing 
it. 

In  many  business  buildings  masonry  walls  should  be  obliga- 
tory, and  they  should  run  clear  up  and  form  a  parapet  above 
the  roof.  Tile  partitions  might  be  used  in  lighter  buildings, 
but  the  tile  should  not  be  less  than  6  inches  thick.  In  ordi- 
nary work  a  stud  partition  covered  on  both  sides  with  expanded 
metal  lath  and  plaster  would  serve.  All  that  could  be  ex- 
pected would  be  a  short  check  upon  the  flames  that  might  give 
the  fire  department  time  to  reach  the  building. 

A  chain,  we  have  been  often  assured,  is  no  stronger  than 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    311 

its  weakest  link,  and  a  partition  of  this  kind  would  be  no 
better  fire  resistant  than  the  wood  door  at  the  top  of  the 
stair.  Properly  this  should  be  tinned  on  both  sides,  and  be 
made  to  swing  shut. 

Doors  Opening  In.  —  We  have  probably  forgotten  the  Colling- 
wood  school,  where  a  little  regiment  of  scholars  was  burned 
because  the  doors  swung  in  instead  of  out.  In  all  public 
buildings,  manufacturing  establishments,  and  other  special 
structures  doors  should  swing  out. 

Elevators.  —  If  possible  the  shaft  should  be  independent  of 
the  rest  of  the  building  and  enclosed  with  masonry  clear 
above  the  roof.  The  tinned  doors  should  be  hung  on  inclined 
tracks,  and  be  held  in  place  with  fusible  links.  They  should 
be  shut  every  night. 

Chimneys.  —  We  are  told  that  30  per  cent,  of  the  fires  in 
dwellings  originate  in  defective  flues.  Some  of  the  insurance 
companies  would  like  to  use  9-inch  walls,  and  a  flue  lining 
besides;  but  while  this  is  desirable,  it  is  not  really  necessary. 
If  a  single  course  of  brick  is  well  laid  in  good  mortar  and 
a  flue  lining  put  on  the  inside  there  is  no  danger  from  fire. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  much  lime  mortar  becomes 
practically  worthless  in  a  few  years.  For  chimneys,  at  least 
fa  of  the  mortar  should  be  Portland  cement,  and  one  foot 
below  the  roof  to  the  top  should  be  of  Portland  cement  mortar 
only. 

Do  not  build  a  chimney  without  a  flue  lining.  If  it  really 
has  to  be  done  in  a  farmhouse  or  where  linings  are  not  easily 
obtained,  use  the  best  mortar,  and  strike  the  joints  on  the 
inside.  Do  not  plaster  all  over  the  brick.  The  heat  soon 
burns  the  plaster  off,  and  leaves  the  joints  exposed.  In  such 
a  case  a  9-inch  wall  is  safer.  It  is  also  better  to  build  all 
chimneys  clear  down  to  the  ground. 

Stacks.  —  In  general,  it  is  customary  to  use  fire  brick  on  the 
inside.  This  is  the  wisest  course  for  ordinary  stacks.  But  the 
radial  brick  ones  are  not  lined.  Boiler  rooms  should  be  com- 
pletely enclosed  with  thick  brick  walls. 

Wood  Plugs.  —  The  most  dangerous  place  to  drive  wood 
plugs  is  into  the  joints  of  a  chimney,  especially  if  there  is  no 
flue  lining.  Metal  plugs  should  be  used.  As  a  rule,  a  good 
carpenter  can  contrive  to  get  along  with  few  plugs  in  such  a 
place  by  nailing  well  at  the  corners. 


312     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Pipes.  —  Hot  air  and  steam  pipes  should  never  rest  against 
wood,  but  be  cut  free  for  at  least  1  inch  all  around  for  steam 
and  2  inches  for  hot  air. 

Ashes.  —  All  over  Denver  there  are  little  brick  receptacles 
in  the  backyard  that  look  like  beehives  on  a  large  scale. 
They  are  for  ashes.  When  hot  ashes  are  laid  against  wood 
there  is  apt  to  be  a  fire. 

Stovepipe  Holes.  —  Keep  them  closed.  If  a  pipe  runs  from 
one  room  to  another  use  a  double  metal  thimble  with  an  air 
space.  This  is  bad  practice  to  so  arrange  for  heating,  but  to 
save  a  chimney  it  is  sometimes  done. 

Electric  Work.  —  There  is  a  National  Electrical  Code  that 
the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  put  forth  as  a 
standard.  Insist  that  all  wiring  and  work  should  be  done 
according  to  the  requirements  of  this  code,  and  put  this  con- 
dition in  the  specification.  If  this  is  not  done  it  may — likely 
will — make  trouble  with  the  insurance. 

Fire  Fighting  Tools.  —  Every  house  should  have,  and  few 
houses  do  have,  some  kind  of  provision  for  fighting  fire  at  the 
first  alarm.  In  cities  the  first  thing  is  to  notify  the  depart- 
ment. But  a  couple  of  pails  of  water  standing  ready  in  a 
place  well  known  to  every  member  of  the  family  would  often 
check  a  fire  before  it  got  the  upper  hand.  It  takes  some  time 
to  fill  a  pail. 

Extinguisher.  —  Another  good  idea  is  to  have  some  kind  of 
a  chemical  extinguisher.  Any  local  insurance  agent  will  give 
a  list  of  good  ones.  Business  buildings  should  have  standpipes 
and  hose  ready,  pails  on  every  floor  full  of  water  and  not  of 
air,  and  an  automatic  sprinkler  where  there  is  pressure  enough 
to  keep  the  pipes  full. 

Autos.  —  In  country  districts  now  the  proper  thing  is  to 
have  a  motor  truck  with  a  chemical  outfit.  It  can  go  about 
a  mile  a  minute.  The  engine  gives  power  to  work  the  chem- 
icals when  the  fire  is  reached.  One  fireman  lives  beside  the 
machine,  and  is  ready  to  start  in  two  minutes  after  the  alarm 
is  given.  Most  farms  near  villages  and  towns  now  have 
telephones. 

Cellars. — A  good  law  in  New  York  City  makes  the  first 
floor  of  tenements  fireproof,  and  this  keeps  down  the  risk, 
especially  when  there  is  a  fire  door  at  the  head  of  the  stair. 
All  manner  of  rubbish  is  thrown  down  in  the  cellar.  There 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     313 

should  be  an  inspection  made  regularly  of  such  places.  We 
have  read  that  the  kick  of  a  cow  burnt  the  city  of  Chicago. 

Fire  Stops.  —  They  should  be  put  in  all  frame  buildings. 
Some  of  the  insurance  companies  would  like  to  see  a  space 
at  the  end  of  the  floor  joists  and  partitions  of  the  second 
story,  and  6  inches  or  so  above,  filled  with  concrete  to  block 
the  fire,  but  this  is  not  likely  to  be  done,  on  account  of  expense. 

Where  walls  are  furred  one  good  method  is  to  corbel  out 
the  brickwork  between  the  joists  as  far  as  the  face  of  the 
furring  strip,  and  thus  block  all  chance  of  a  draft  running 
from  one  story  to  the  other. 

The  usual  method  in  a  frame  building  is  to  cut  in  a  2-inch 
piece  between  the  studs  at  the  level  of  the  ribbon  strip. 

Gas,  Gasoline,  and  Kerosene.  —  Never  use  a  swinging  gas 
bracket.  When  gas  is  escaping  do  not  hunt  for  it  with  a 
lighted  match.  First  of  all  open  the  windows  and  doors,  and 
then  make  the  search  when  most  of  the  gas  has  escaped.  It 
would  be  well  if  we  all  knew  how  to  shut  off  gas  at  the  meter 
just  as  we  do  water. 

Gasoline  is  exceedingly  dangerous.  One  pint,  we  are  told, 
will  impregnate  a  space  of  200  cubic  feet,  and  make  it  ready 
for  an  explosion.  This  is  5x4x10.  Keep  it  out  of  the  house. 

Kerosene  lamps  start  about  2,000  fires  in  a  year.  It  is  use- 
less to  tell  a  certain  class  of  women  not  to  light  fires  with 
kerosene.  They  know  better.  Every  week,  or  often  day,  one 
may  pick  up  a  newspaper  which  shows  that  the  dauntless 
females  are  still  keeping  up  the  fight.  When  they  go  to  the 
next  world  in  a  flame  of  kerosene  they  are  put  beside  the 
foolish  virgins  who,  bad  as  they  were,  knew  enough  to  go  with 
empty  lamps  rather  than  take  kerosene. 

Matches. — About  1,000  dwellings  are  set  on  fire  every  year 
by  matches.  The  safety  ones  are  the  best.  One  advantage 
of  electric  lighting  is  that  it  does  away  with  the  use  of 
matches.  If  we  were  all  rich  enough  to  put  in  conduit  work 
where  the  wires  are  run  in  pipes,  the  fire  danger  would  be 
lessened. 

Wainscoting.  —  The  old  style  kitchen  was  lined  with  wood 
up  several  feet.  The  new  one  is  plastered.  Keep  the  heating 
stove  at  a  reasonable  distance  from  the  wood.  Keep  all  kinds 
of  timbers  and  woodwork  clear  of  heat. 

Smoking  Boom.  —  A  place  for  men  to  smoke  would  be  of 


314    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

much  value  in  some  plants.  They  would  be  better  without 
tobacco,  but  as  long  as  they  will  use  it  we  ought  to  take  care 
that  matches  and  cigar  ends  are  not  thrown  where  they  will 
start  a  fire. 

Fire  Escapes.  —  They  save  lives  and  damage  suits.  The 
Underwriters  want  steps  not  less  than  6  inches  wide  and  not 
more  than  9  inches  high.  Some  states  have  regulations  as  to 
fire  escapes. 

No  matter  if  the  building  is  fireproof,  a  system  of  fire 
escapes  ought  to  be  installed,  for  the  contents  may  be  burnt. 
At  a  fire  in  New  York  in  1911,  in  a  fireproof  building,  147 
people  lost  their  lives  through  insufficient  exits  and  locked 
doors. 

Fire  Limits  and  Safeguards.  —  Much  loss  would  be  avoided 
if  the  foregoing  safeguards  were  attended  to.  It  would  be 
easy  enough  to  add  more,  but  the  principal  dangers  are 
indicated. 

A  proper  municipal  code  would  set  apart  a  certain  section 
of  a  city  where  none  but  fireproof  buildings  were  allowed;  and 
many  other  changes  from  the  regular  codes  would  be  made. 
Probably  even  a  few  lightning  rods  would  be  installed.  Per- 
haps we  were  too  rash  in  saying  that  they  are  of  no  value. 

Several  good  building  codes  have  been  compiled,  but  they 
are  of  no  use  unless  they  are  followed.  Even  if  a  city  gets  a 
good  one  the  council  will  often  render  it  useless  by  giving 
special  permits. 

And  while  you  have  been  reading  this  chapter  the  buildings 
have  been  burning,  and  the  Excitable  Men  have  been  waving 
flags,  and  looking  at  their  stop  watches,  and  shouting,  "  Lay 
more  brick !  Hoist  more  timbers !  Faster !  faster !  " 


CHAPTER  II 
WHERE  TO  LOCATE 

Someone  has  said  that  wherever  Americans  are  they  want 
to  be  elsewhere.  When  I  would  suggest  improvements  to  my 
more  experienced  grandmother  she  would  reply,  "  Changes  are 
lightsome,  and  fools  are  fond  of  them." 

But  while  environment  does  not  mean  everything,  it  means 
a  good  deal.  Some  of  the  best  Australian  families  are  de- 
scended from  British  convicts  who  got  a  better  chance  in  the 
new  land.  Quite  a  few  shady  characters  also  came  here  and 
reformed  under  better  conditions  than  they  could  find  at  home. 
This  means  that  there  is  hope  for  us  all. 

From  the  beginning  of  this  republic  there  has  been  a  trek 
from  East  to  West.  Most  of  the  people  were  seeking  and  find- 
ing better  environments.  They  were  not  seeking  a  better 
Declaration  of  Independence  nor  another  Constitution,  for 
these  belonged  to  the  East  as  well  as  to  the  newer  portions 
of  the  continent.  They  wanted  more  favorable  environments. 

There  are  plenty  who  make  a  great  success  in  all  lines  back 
in  Europe,  but  on  the  average  not  nearly  so  many  as  in  this 
country;  and  likewise  there  are  many  who  make  a  success 
in  the  Eastern  states,  but  not  such  a  large  percentage  as  in 
the  newer  ones.  The  man  who  says  that  environment  does  not 
count,  and  we  have  quite  a  few  of  this  class  in  pulpits,  simply 
puts  himself  athwart  the  path  of  scores  of  millions  who  left 
Europe  for  Australia,  South  Africa,  South  America,  and  the 
United  States;  and  who,  in  our  land,  later  on,  left  the  East 
for  the  West,  until  now  they  are  stopped  by  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Environment  will  not  make  any  man  anything  else  than 
human,  but  it  ought  to  help  to  make  him  a  better  human.  That 
hundreds  of  thousands  with  the  best  environments  trample 
everything  beneath  their  feet  does  not  prove  any  more  to-day 
that  it  did  of  old  when  swine  did  the  same  with  pearls. 

315 


316     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

In  all  this  broad  continent,  then,  where  should  a  contractor 
go  ?  For  one  thing,  he  must  settle  where  there  is  building 
going  on.  No  matter  how  well  equipped  he  may  be  to  do 
business  if  there  is  none  to  do  he  might  as  well  pack  up  his 
belongings. 

Some  of  the  Eastern  states  might  as  well  be  in  Europe  so 
far  as  growth  is  concerned.  As  they  were  a  score  of  years  ago, 
so  practically  they  are  for  the  1910  census.  In  others  while 
the  state  as  a  whole  grows,  there  are  many  towns  and  villages 
that  stand  still.  They  are  often  pleasant  places  for  those 
who  have  an  assured  income,  but  for  others  who  have  to  make 
their  way  there  is  little  chance  of  advancement.  Young  men 
are  to  be  encouraged  rather  than  lectured  when  they  want 
to  go  somewhere  else. 

According  to  the  1910  census  Iowa  has  fewer  people  than 
she  had  in  1900,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  usual  excess  of  births 
over  deaths.  It  stands  to  reason  that  few  new  houses  are 
required  there. 

Roughly  speaking,  this  continent  might  be  separated  into 
7  great  divisions :  ( 1 )  The  Northeastern  states  as  far  down  as 
Maryland,  and  as  far  West  as  the  Alleghanies;  (2)  the  South- 
ern states  of  the  old  days;  (3)  the  Ohio  Reserve  territory  from 
the  Alleghanies  to  Chicago ;  ( 4 )  the  former  "  West "  of  only 
a  score  of  years  ago,  but  now  the  Middle  West  from  Chicago 
to  Wyoming;  (5)  what  we  now  call  the  Northwest  or  the  Far 
West,  from  Wyoming  to  Seattle;  (6)  the  new  Southwest  of 
Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  especially  that  great  empire  of 
Texas;  (7)  and  the  southern  sections  of  California,  Nevada, 
and  Utah,  with  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  might  almost  be  put 
in  a  classification  by  themselves.  Southern  California,  espe- 
cially, looks  like  a  paradise  to  Northern  people. 

In  Europe  when  a  man  moves  over  a  frontier  he  is  among 
another  people  who  do  not  understand  his  language.  We  can 
move  among  fifty  nations  all  practically  the  same,  but 
with  such  a  variety  of  climate,  resources,  and  attractions  as 
ought  to  satisfy  the  most  fastidious. 

Probably  many  a  contractor  who  wants  to  change  might  be 
better  off  where  he  is.  No  set  rule  can  be  laid  down  to  suit  all. 

If  a  Western  city  is  decided  upon  there  are  several  to 
choose  from.  I  prefer  Omaha,  although  it  has  some  draw- 
backs. Los  Angeles  would  be  my  next  choice,  Denver  would 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     317 

be  the  third,  and  one  I  have  never  visited,  Seattle,  the 
fourth. 

Los  Angeles  and  Denver  are  two  of  the  cleanest  cities  one 
can  find.  They  have  what  the  Missouri  Valley  cities  sadly 
lack? — attractions  within  reasonable  distance.  The  prairie 
country  is  rich,  for  one  agricultural  authority  says  that 
measuring  150  miles  in  all  directions  from  Omaha  there  is 
no  better  land  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  But  there  are  no  lakes 
worth  speaking  of,  the  rivers  are  tolerably  muddy — we  are 
forced  in  candor  to  admit  that  much — and  there  are  no  moun- 
tains. The  prairie  has  a  strange  attractiveness  of  its  own, 
but  some  accustomed  to. other  scenery  might  find  it  monotonous 
and  sigh  for  sea  or  snow  peaks. 

But  Los  Angeles  and  Denver  are  singularly  well  supplied 
with  ocean  and  mountain,  in  the  one  case,  and  great  mountains 
in  the  other,  within  a  day's  ride.  Both  are  crowded  with 
tourists  at  the  right  season  of  the  year.  The  chances  are 
t"hat  they  will  always  be,  but  "  more  so." 

There  are  thousands  who  do  well  in  the  older  sections  of 
the  country,  but  the  competition  is  greater  in  one  way — the 
old  established  businesses  get  the  best  work.  They  are  more 
cautious  in  taking  hold  of  a  stranger. 

But  the  old  states,  as  we  might  call  them,  have  one  great 
advantage  over  the  newer  ones.  The  East  is  a  land  of  fac- 
tories. It  is  so  full  of  them  that  they  are  overflowing  South 
to  get  cheaper  material  and  wages.  There  is  a  great  field  for 
the  builder  in  this  factory  land. 

It  looks,  as  a  general  rule,  which  has  as  usual  many  excep- 
tions, that  the  best  field  is  west  of  the  Missouri  River.  Even 
the  cities  of  Iowa  and  Illinois  are  already  looked  upon  as  old 
in  a  way  that  does  not  apply  to  those  further  west.  Like 
some  Eastern  cities  they  stay  safely  about  the  same  popula- 
tion from  one  census  to  another. 

For  a  man  with  children  the  West  is  to  be  preferred.  It  is 
going  to  grow  all  the  way  from  the  Missouri  River  to  the 
Pacific.  Irrigation  is  opening  up  a  new  West  that  is  startling. 
Land  that  was  formerly  worth  a  dollar  an  acre  in  Western 
Nebraska  has  been  sold  for  $350.  What  we  all  laughed  at  a 
score  of  years  ago  has  become  the  best  in  the  state. 

So  the  same  story  goes  where  the  water  has  been  turned  on. 
One  advantage  of  this  arid  territory  is  that  there  is  only  land 


318     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

— just  land.  There  are  no  great  forests  like  those  of  Michigan 
to  be  cut  down,  leaving  a  desert  to  be  deserted,  and  investors 
with  property  on  their  hands  that  becomes  worthless  as  soon 
as  the  lumber  is  used;  and  there  are  no  mines  to  be  exhausted. 
But  there  is  land  that  with  proper  treatment  will  endure  as 
the  source  of  wealth  from  generation  to  generation. 

In  the  Old  South  there  are  undoubtedly  good  chances,,  but 
they  ask  who  your  grandfather  was,  and  their  ways  are  not 
exactly  Northern  ways.  The  climate  is  also  'a  trifle  hot. 
Many  Northerners  are  going  down  to  find  pleasant  homes, 
nevertheless. 

The  new  Southwest  has  been  growing  fast  in  the  last  decade. 
There  is  to  be  a  still  greater  development  down  there.  Kansas 
City  and  St.  Louis  have  waxed  fat  off  the  trade  of  Oklahoma 
and  Texas. 

Beyond  Texas  lies  Mexico.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
already  there  is  the  immense  sum  of  $1,000,000,000  of  American 
money  invested  in  that  country.  This  means  American 
machinery  and  supplies  by  the  trainload,  and  it  is  only  the 
beginning.  Some  say  that  this  $1,000,000,000  sent  the  army 
down  there  in  1911. 

In  the  Far  West  we  have  to  deal  in  big  words.  Mr.  Roose- 
velt was  probably  about  right  when  he  said  that  it  would 
come  to  be  New  York  first,  Pennsylvania  second,  and  Washing- 
ton third.  In  the  last  decade  the  growth  of  Washington,  Ore- 
gon, Southern  California,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas  has  been 
\vonderful. 

For  those  in  doubt  and  who  feel  that  the  call  of  the  West  is 
in  their  blood  one  would  say,  "  Go  west  of  the  Missouri  River 
as  far  south  as  Kansas  City,  and  keep  west  of  a  line  drawn 
from  there  to  Galveston." 

Climate.  —  It  is  tolerably  hard  to  get  a  perfect  climate. 
There  is  sure  to  be  something  wrong.  In  New  York  City 
it  is  the  humidity  in  summer,  and  the  raw  Atlantic  atmosphere 
in  winter;  in  the  Old  South  it  is  too  hot,  except  in  the 
mountainous  regions,  where  there  is  much  moonshining  and 
little  building;  in  the  new  Southwest  there  are  heat  and  fleas 
that  make  one  sigh  for  the  North,  for  fleas,  trained  or  un- 
trained, are  uneasy  bedfellows;  in  the  Puget  Sound  regions 
west  of  the  Cascades,  when  it  is  not  snowing  it  is  raining, 
according  to  some  who  do  not  like  it;  while  on  the  east  of 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     319 

the  range,  and  clear  down  to  Arizona  and  Utah,  there  is  no 
rain,  and  the  dust  is  annoying. 

In  Nebraska  there  is  as  healthy  a  climate  as  a  man  could 
wish  for,  but  the  high  winds  are  at  times  trying  on  the 
temper,  and  in  the  cities  that  are  not  so  clean  as  they  should 
be  the  dust  and  refuse  of  the  streets  fills  the  eyes  and  ears. 
Yet  far  back  in  the  old  Encyclopedia  Britannica  these  same 
high  winds  are  cited  as  one  cause  for  the  wonderful  health- 
fulness  of  the  state,  so  what  is  an  affliction  in  one  sense  may 
in  reality  be  a  blessing. 

One  man  has  recently  told  us  that  all  prairie  states  could, 
by  erecting  larger  windmills  than  the  ones  in  use,  store  com- 
pressed air,  and  light,  heat,  and  furnish  power  to  every 
family.  Once  upon  a  time,  and  it  is  not  so  long  ago,  we  did 
not  think  that  our  waterfalls  were  of  any  account.  They  used 
to  be  for  the  old-time  miller,  but  we  thought  we  had  advanced 
beyond  them.  Now  we  know  better.  Perhaps  we  shall  one 
day  harness  the  wind. 

In  Los  Angeles  there  is  an  ideal  winter  climate,  but  there  are 
winds  also.  This  continual  smiling  climate  may  become  a 
trifle  monotonous.  It  is  one  thing  to  visit  a  region  and  another 
to  stay  there. 

All  through  the  corn  country  of  the  Missouri  Valley,  stretch- 
ing from  North  Dakota  down  to  Oklahoma,  there  is  the  same 
healthy  climate.  Here  in  Omaha,  for  example,  we  are  1,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  On  some  days  in  summer  the  heat  is 
trying,  but  it  is  not  humid.  In  fall,  and  late  fall  especially, 
from  the  middle  of  October  to  the  end  of  November,  and  some- 
times with  an  occasional  storm,  clear  up  to  Christmas,  one 
could  scarcely  say  too  much  in  praise  of  the  climate.  It  is  the 
Indian  summer  at  its  best. 

The  winters  are  not  severe,  and  they  are  dry,  unlike  the  air 
around  the  sea  or  the  large  lakes.  Spring  is  backward.  It 
sometimes  seems  as  if  it  would  never  come. 

All  through  this  prairie  region  and  on  to  Denver  the  air 
is  clear  overhead,  and  especially  good  for  those  with  lung 
troubles. 

It  is  a  great  land,  and  it  is  growing  and  going  to  grow. 
Years  ago  Thomas  Brackett  Reed  spoke  of  "  the  omnivorous 
West." 

The   1910  census  showed  that  all   states  west  of  the  west 


320    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

line  of  Nebraska  gained  50  per  cent,  and  over.  Most  of 
them  gained  70  per  cent.  Colorado  and  Utah  gained  from 
"  30  to  50,"  as  two  exceptions.  The  empire  of  Texas  had 
from  20  to  30  per  cent,  gain,  but  certain  sections  had  much 
more.  Oklahoma  gained  over  50  per  cent.  Oklahoma  City  rose 
from  10,000  to  six  times  as  many.  Los  Angeles  increased 
from  102,479  to  318,000.  What  are  the  prospects  for  building 
in  such  states  and  cities  as  compared  with  some  eastern  states, 
Iowa,  and  Indiana? 

Summed  up,  if  I  should  be  asked  where  there  will  be  most 
building  done  before  the  next  census  of  1920,  I  should  say  in 
the  Southwest,  and  I  have  examined  the  field  in  all  directions. 
The  Northwest  also  will  grow  wonderfully.  But  we  often 
forget  that  Texas  alone  is  larger  than  France  or  Germany. 
She  had  only  four  million  people  in  1911;  yet  if  she  had  the 
whole  population  of  the  United  States  there  would  be  fewer 
to  the  acre  than  in  Massachusetts  no\v.  Land  is  already  high- 
priced  in  many  states  that  were  settled  only  a  few  years  ago; 
it  is  still  cheap  in  the  Southwest.  In  1911  excursion  trains 
were  running  down  there  in  double  sections. 

A  contractor  or  architect  starting  in  business,  in  most  cases, 
must  go  where  there  is  building  to  be  done,  or  waste  too  much 
of  his  life  fighting  for  an  opening  among  established  com- 
petitors. There  is  no  choice  in  the  matter. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  IDEAL  EDUCATION  FOE  A  GENERAL  CONTRACTOR 

"  We  are  always  in  these  days  endeavoring  to  separate  in- 
tellect and  manual  labor;  we  want  one  man  to  be  always 
thinking,  and  another  to  be  always  working,  and  we  call  the 
one  a  gentleman  and  the  other  an  operative;  whereas  the 
workman  ought  often  to  be  thinking,  and  the  thinker  often  to  be 
working,  and  both  should  be  gentlemen  in  the  best  sense.  As 
it  is,  we  make  both  ungentlemanly,  the  one  envying,  the  other 
despising  his  brother;  and  the  mass  of  society  is  made  up  of 
morbid  thinkers  and  miserable  workers." — Ruskin,  for  the 
United  Kingdom. 

"  But  what  is  education  ?  Of  course  it  is  not  book-learning. 
Book-learning  does  not  make  5  per  cent,  of  that  mass  of 
common  sense  that  '  runs '  the  world,  transacts  its  business, 
secures  its  progress,  trebles  its  power  over  nature,  works  out 
in  the  long  run  a  rough  average  justice,  wears  away  the  world's 
restraints,  and  lifts  off  its  burdens.  The  ideal  Yankee  who 
<has  more  brains  in  his  hand  than  others  have  in  their 
skulls,'  is  not  a  scholar;  and  two-thirds  of  the  inventions 
that  make  Old  and  New  England  the  workshops  of  the  world, 
did  not  come  from  colleges,  but  struggled  up  from  the  irre- 
pressible instinct  of  untrained  natural  power.  Her  workshops, 
not  her  colleges,  made  England,  for  a  while,  the  mistress  of  the 
world;  and  the  hardest  job  her  workman  had  was  to  make 
Oxford  willing  he  should  work  his  wonders.  ...  In  this 
sense  the  Fremont  campaign  taught  Americans  more  than  a 
hundred  colleges;  and  John  Brown's  pulpit  at  Harper's  Ferry 
was  equal  to  any  ten  thousand  ordinary  chairs." — Wendell 
Phillips,  for  the  United  States. 

That  is  what  Ruskin  told  the  world  in  general;  and  Wendell 
Phillips  the  professors  and  students  of  Harvard  in  particular, 

321 


322     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 
SECTION  I 

AT   SCHOOL 

Education,  we  have  been  often  told,  is  a  leading  out.  It  is  to 
develop,  but  some  minds  cannot  be  developed  except  in  par- 
ticular directions.  You  cannot  make  a  silk  purse  out  of  a 
sow's  ear.  Some  of  the  most  brilliant  men  have  been  dunces 
in  certain  departments  of  human  interest. 

Dombey  and  Son.  —  There  is  an  interesting  book  with  this 
title.  Dombey  wanted  his  son  to  carry  on  the  business  after 
his  own  death.  This  is  a  natural  feeling.  Kings,  aristocrats, 
plutocrats,  ordinary  millionaires,  and  common  building  con- 
tractors have  it.  It  is  love  for  their  own  young  that  all 
animals,  including  wolves,  and  tigers,  have.  We  have  no 
reason  to  be  ashamed  of  it,  and  none  to  be  particularly 
proud. 

What,  then,  would  be  an  ideal  education  for  young  Dombey, 
supposing  Dombey,  Senior,  to  be,  for  the  moment,  a  general 
contractor,  and  that  the  young  man  was  willin'  to  follow  in 
the  steps  of  his  father?  No  matter  what  his  talents  may  be 
they  have  to  be  led  out  or  developed. 

Ordinary  Education.  —  In  the  first  place  we  shall  assume 
that  Dombey,  Jr.,  has  been  sent  to  school,  and  has  gathered 
the  usual  amount  of  wisdom  dispensed  there  in  tabloid  or  other 
shape.  This  is  the  lot  of  all  American  children,  where  the 
taxpayers  erect  schools  enough,  and  need  not  occupy  us  here. 

Perhaps,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  the  youth  had  to 
take  up  certain  subjects  that  neither  he  nor  Dombey,  Sr., 
approved  of,  but  the  ordinary  routine  cannot  be  set  aside  for 
anyone.  It  is  a  table  d'hote  dinner  that  is  provided  for  all, 
and  not  a  dinner  a  la  carte. 

Handwork.  —  In  many  schools  the  pupils  are  now  taking  a 
course  in  manual  training,  and  for  anyone  who  is  to  engage  in 
building  as  a  lifework  this  is  of  great  value.  It  is  not  merely 
a  training  in  one  branch  of  mechanical  work,  but  in  several, 
and  while  it  is  necessarily  of  an  elementary  nature  it  is  none 
the  less  of  importance. 

Drawing.  —  A  course  in  simple  geometry  and  drawing 
usually  goes  with  the  manual  work,  and  gives  an  insight  into 
the  principles  of  design  that  saves  much  searching  of  heart 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    323 

and  puzzling  when  actual  plans  are  spread  out  for  a 
building. 

Upward.  —  In  many  cases  young  Dombey  is  sent  to  the  High 
School,  and  is  then  addressed  as  "  Mister."  But  only  a  com- 
paratively small  percentage  of  American  boys  ever  reach  so 
far.  In  Cleveland  in  1906,  for  example,  there  were  more  than 
32,000  boys  in  the  grades.  Only  2,000  reach  the  High  School, 
and  300  the  day  of  graduation. 

Waste.  —  There  is  a  good  deal  of  dissatisfaction  with  the 
curriculum  of  the  High  School.  If  something  is  lost  by  not 
being  able  to  attend,  there  is  also  a  gain  in  the  saving  of  time 
devoted  to  useless  subjects. 

Necessary  Courses.  —  Certain  subjects  must  be  learned  by  all 
pupils.  We  have  agreed  that  everyone  should  master  what 
have  been  called  the  three  R's — Readin',  Ritin',  and  Rithmetic. 
Geography,  a  little  history,  the  less  grammar  as  she  is  taught 
the  better,  spelling,  and  so  forth,  make  up  the  list.  I  wish 
that  Dombey  might  also  master  simple  decimals,  as  they  are 
so  useful  in  the  business  for  which  we  are  going  to  carefully 
groom  him. 

Discord.  —  So  far,  we  are  all  agreed,  but  about  this  point 
trouble  larger  than  a  man's  hand  begins  to  cloud  up.  This 
starts  at  the  doors  of  the  High  School. 

Excavation.  —  We  should  like  to  compromise  on  Greek  and 
Latin  roots.  Further  on  in  this  chapter  something  will  be 
said  of  the  other  work  required  for  the  erection  of  a  building, 
but  nothing  on  excavation.  That  hard  part  of  the  common 
task  we  leave  for  the  "  Dagos,"  who  come  from  the  classic 
land  of  Augustus;  but  we  should  like  to  persuade  young 
Dombey  to  excavate  roots  enough  of  the  right  kind  to  save 
him  lots  of  dictionary  chasing  through  life.  If  the  professors 
would  only  let  the  classical  part  stop  there  we  could  walk 
through  life  harmoniously  instead  of  scowling  at  each  other 
as  we  are  now  almost  forced  to  do. 

Words.  —  But  the  courses  are  made  out,  and  they  insist 
that  Latin  or  German,  or  Greek,  or  Pawnee  shall  be  carefully 
studied  by  our  hero,  whom  we  have  decided  to  decorate  with 
other  trimmings.  It  is  all  well  enough  for  a  chemist,  doctor, 
lawyer,  or  preacher  to  learn  Latin,  Sanscrit,  Hebrew,  or 
Pawnee  if  he  wants  to;  and  French  and  German  are  undoubt- 
edly useful  in  some  walks  of  life,  but  building  contractors  in 


324     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

the  United  States  generally  address  their  men  and  do  business 
in  English,  when  a  wave  of  the  hand  is  not  sufficiently  clear 
to  the  man  on  the  ridge  or  in  the  basement. 

This  language  fight  is  an  old  one;  and  before  deciding  that 
your  heir  apparent  shall  be  ground  through  the  mill  it  might 
be  worth  while  to  consider  the  nature  of  education. 

What  is  Education?  —  It  is  undoubtedly  a  leading  out,  but 
we  have  power  to  go  or  be  led  out  in  different  directions. 
Those  of  us  who  have  spent  our  time  in  building  know  that 
there  is  a  wide  field  that  we  have  not  yet  explored.  There 
is  much  to  learn  in  the  old  paths;  and  new  ones  are  daily 
being  opened  up.  How  much  do  you  know  about  reinforced 
concrete  work?  Not  so  very  much,  likely  enough.  We  are  all 
in  the  alphabet  there. 

Whether  is  it  wiser  to  send  Dombey  along  the  paths  that 
have  to  be  traveled,  or  along  the  useless  language  road? 
Emerson,  who  knew  several  languages,  said  that  he  preferred 
to  read  English  translations  of  foreign  books.  Not  much  of 
value  is  lost. 

Mind  Training.  —  But  they  say  that  the  study  of  languages 
trains  the  mind  and  makes  it  a  more  powerful  instrument,  a 
better  tool  to  work  with;  and  if  this  is  the  case,  tool  and 
machinery  handling  men,  like  builders,  are  not  apt  to  slight 
anything  that  gives  more  power  to  the  principal  tool  of  all — 
the  human  mind.  But  is  it  the  case? 

The  Jews.  —  One  of  the  greatest  peoples  that  ever  rose  in 
the  world  was  the  Jews  of  Biblical  history.  It  is  not  recorded 
that  they  spent  much  of  their  time  learning  foreign  languages. 
One  of  their  greatest  men,  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  world 
also,  was  Moses.  He  had  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians, 
languages  among  the  rest  of  it,  likely  enough;  but  he  had  to 
give  it  all  up  and  go  to  handwork,  to  sheep-herding  for  forty 
years,  to  get  the  rubbish  "  out  of  his  system,"  and  fit  him  for 
his  great  task.  He  had  been  dealing  too  much  in  words,  and 
thinking  the  thoughts  of  other  men;  and  he  had  to  chase 
refractory  sheep,  and  tar  them  to  gain  wisdom.  Language, 
indeed ! 

The  Greeks.  —  Another  nation  that  highly  distinguished 
itself  in  all  the  arts,  and  especially  in  architecture,  was  the 
little  one  that  lived  in  little  Greece  some  two  or  three  thou- 
sand years  ago.  We  try  to  copy  their  work  to-day,  so  that, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    325 

like  the  crab,  we  have  been  walking  backward.  There  has  never 
been  an  artistic  revel  like  theirs  on  earth — and  their  sons  are 
to-day  shining  shoes  in  Omaha,  Nebraska,  U.  S.  A.  To  that 
black  complexion  has  it  come  at  last. 

We  have  measured  their  great  stone  columns  by  all  our  fine 
rules,  and  they  are  true  to  the  sixteenth  part  of  an  inch.  They 
knew  how  to  make  columns  better  than  we  do,  and  several 
other  things  besides.  How  was  it  all  possible,  with  their  minds 
untrained  by  the  study  of  languages  ?  The  general  understand- 
ing is  that  the  Greeks  knew  only  their  own,  and  found  it 
sufficient. 

The  Romans  knew  Latin,  and  even  their  children  spoke  it. 
Some  of  them  learnt  Greek,  but  the  general  rule  was  for  the 
conquered  nation  to  learn  another  language  than  its  own.  One 
was  enough  for  the  conquerors. 

Judging  from  these  peoples  it  would  seem  that  progress  does 
not  depend  upon  what  Carlyle  used  to  call  "  gerund  grinding." 

One  writer  who  had  been  run  through  the  ancient  and  mod- 
ern language  mill  said  in  "  The  Old  Order  and  the  New," 
"  Let  the  best  possible  translation  be  executed  of  all  that  is 
excellent  in  form  or  substance  in  the  dead  languages,  and 
then  be  done  with  them  forever.  Let  the  dead  past  bury  its 
dead.  Such  pretended  '  seats  of  learning '  as  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  are  mere  seminaries  for  the  acquisition  and  diffusion 
of  useless  knowledge.  All  the  modern  languages — and,  for  the 
matter  of  that,  the  ancient  ones  also — are  but  jungles  of 
verbiage,  which  retard  rather  than  facilitate  human  thought 
and  progress." 

Experience.  —  I  took  a  fancy  to  learn  a  little  Spanish  shortly 
after  school  days.  I  kept  up  my  studies  until  I  could  read 
it  almost  as  easily  as  English.  I  read  what  many  call  the 
greatest  novel  of  the  world,  "  Don  Quixote,"  about  half  a  dozen 
times  in  the  original.  The  spelling  is  beautifully  simple. 
There  is  not  so  much  trouble  with  a  world  writer  like  Cer- 
vantes, but  I  noticed  that  when  I  tried  the  "  Elogios  "  of  some 
of  the  fearfully  learned  men  of  the  academy  I  had  to  run  hot- 
foot for  the  dictionary  to  get  the  meaning  of  the  jaw-breakers 
of  words.  They  could  not  tell  us  of  their  great  countryman 
unless  they  used  words  of  many  letters. 

I  remember  enough  of  this  language  to  be  able  to  easily  read 
the  New  Testament.  And  this  great  book  is  also  written  in 


326     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

plain  language.  In  fact,  all  first-class  writers  can  easily  make 
themselves  understood.  It  is  the  D.  C.  L.,  Ph.D.,  Oxon.  tribe 
that  trouble  our  sleep. 

Later  on  I  studied  French  for  three  years,  under  a  native 
teacher,  and  lived  for  about  a  year  in  a  house  where  we  spoke 
nothing  else.  I  found  it  convenient  when  staying  for  a  few 
weeks  in  Paris,  where  even  on  the  Rue  de  Rivoli  they  speak 
French.  One  winter  when  building  was  dull  I  read  it  for 
ten  or  twelve  hours  a  day. 

Pedantry.  —  A  distinguished  American,  who  had  lived  in 
Paris  nearly  all  his  life,  once  wrote  that  he  had  met  only  one 
English-speaking  person  who  could  really  speak  French.  The 
other  thousands  merely  made  a  more  or  less  successful  "  bluff  " 
at  it.  This  is  too  much  of  the  Ph.D.  way  of  looking  at  things, 
but  the  truth  is  that  all  thousands  of  us  manage  to  acquire 
is  just  a  fair  workable  article  of  commerce,  as  it  were,  which 
needs  to  be  taken  with  quite  a  few  grains  of  charity.  It  is  not 
by  any  means  the  French  of  Paris.  Never  believe  it.  It  is  like 
the  Canadian  article — only  worse. 

Not  Theory.  —  This  much  to  show  that  I  do  not  write 
altogether  from  theory.  Some  men  have  learned  fifty  lan- 
guages, and  they  can  speak  with  more  authority.  Our  question 
here  comes  to  be,  Is  it  worth  while  for  young  Dombey?  Most 
contractors  would  say  no,  and  I  think  they  would  be  right. 

Line  of  Study.  — It  is  true  that  in  almost  all  technical,  engi- 
neering, and  architectural  schools  French  and  German  make 
up  a  part  of  the  course,  but  why  it  would  be  hard  to  tell.  It 
is  a  fashion  that  one  copies  from  another.  It  is  well  enough 
in  Europe,  but  hardly  necessary  here.  Anything  of  importance 
in  the  technical  world  appearing  in  a  foreign  journal  is  soon 
translated. 

French  is  a  useful  enough  language  for  many  architects,  of 
course,  and  especially  for  those  who  attend  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux- Arts;  but  if  we  are  to  believe  a  writer  in  the  Architect- 
ural Record  for  April,  1908.  this  course  is  no  longer  necessary 
for  American  students,  but  is  often  a  positive  drawback. 

Posing  versus  Mind  Training.  —  There  is  no  great  intellec- 
tual effort  required  to  learn  a  foreign  language  as  it  is  mostly 
learned.  To  learn  languages  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  a  teacher 
is  another  thing.  Even  English  cannot  be  learned  by  English- 
speaking  people  in  a  lifetime;  and  study  is  so  far  from  being 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     327 

the  only  requirement  that  John  Bunyan,  a  common  tinker, 
wrote  better  than  any  of  the  professors.  It  sometimes  seems 
that  the  educational  brigade,  hopeless  of  distinguishing  itself 
in  any  other  way  than  by  a  parrot-like  repetition  of  words, 
tries  to  make  us  believe  that  it  is  a  highly  intellectual  accom- 
plishment to  know  how  to  name  a  cow  in  several  languages. 
It  has  been  successful  enough  to  impress  this  belief  on  the 
minds  of  the  "  old  folks  "  who  have  come  to  think  that,  some- 
how or  other,  it  is  "  the  thing  "  to  grind  their  young  hopefuls 
through  the  language  mill. 

First.  —  But  if  young  Dombey  wants  to  learn  a  language  it 
ought  to  be  Spanish,  and  neither  French  nor  German.  As 
already  said  in  another  chapter,  it  has  been  estimated  that 
Americans  have  invested  $1,000,000,000  in  Mexico;  and  we 
have  now  to  deal  with  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines.  Of 
course  the  money  side  is  not  the  only  one,  but  it  is  one;  and 
Spanish  offers  the  best  opportunity  to  make  money.  Scores 
of  American  firms  now  issue  catalogs  in  this  language,  and 
with  the  certain  increase  of  the  South  American  trade  more 
of  them  are  going  to  do  so.  In  the  building  business,  just  to 
quote  one  example,  the  Northwestern  Expanded  Metal  Com- 
pany issues  a  Spanish  booklet,  and  advertises  for  Central  and 
South  American  trade. 

Why  learn  German  or  French?  On  the  slightest  notice  a 
trainload  of  bi-lingual  workers  of  all  kinds  with  fourteen  kinds 
of  German  at  the  ends  of  their  fingers  could  be  delivered  F.O.B. 
from  Milwaukee  to  any  part  of  the  United  States;  and  Quebec 
and  our  Eastern  states  are  full  of  people  who  speak  either 
French  or  English.  New  Mexico  and  Arizona  have  quite  a 
few  Spanish-English  people,  but  they  are  not,  as  a  rule,  the 
kind  that  will  chase  after  trade  to  the  South.  They  do  not 
compare  well  with  the  Milwaukee  brand  of  human  in  this 
respect. 

The  Mind.  —  When  all  this  is  said  our  school  friends  fall 
back  on  the  "  training  of  the  mind."  The  mind,  like  the  body, 
will  grow  on  any  reasonable  kind  of  food.  It  can  be  trained 
by  studying  architecture,  physiology,  Hebrew,  weaving,  pottery, 
woman  suffrage,  Shakespeare-Bacon  controversies,  chemistry, 
varnishing,  and  even  law.  The  mind  is  no  more  dependent 
on  a  certain  class  of  studies  than  the  body  is  on  breakfast 
foods. 


328     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

All.  of  this  does  not  mean  that  young  Dombey  should  not 
learn  a  language  if  he  has  time  and  opportunity  because  of 
mere  laziness. 

Shorthand.  —  This  is  a  splendid  labor-saving  tool.  I  learned 
it  when  a  boy,  and  reported  in  church  for  several  years  until 
I  became  fairly  saturated  with  sermons.  I  have  found  it  very 
useful  in  copying  specifications  when  in  a  hurry,  and  for 
writing  this  and  other  books.  According  to  my  way  of  think- 
ing it  is  worth  any  half-dozen  languages,  dead  or  alive,  and 
it  can  be  learned  well  in  one-third  of  the  time  that  a  language 
needs  to  be  learned  in  rather  a  poor  way  at  best.  The  short- 
hand teachers  say  that  there  is  no  study  like  this  for  "  training 
the  mind." 

Choice.  —  At  the  door  of  the  future  High  School  one  will  be 
able  to  choose  the  line  of  study  he  wants,  and  not  be  compelled 
to  grind  through  what  somebody  else  says  is  good  for  him. 
If  young  Dombey  can  go  through  the  High  School  it  will  do 
him  no  particular  harm,  as  things  are,  but  not  so  very  much 
good  as  to  astonish  us.  It  might  keep  him  from  being  so 
narrow-minded  in  after  life  as  to  think  that  the  Hand  is  ahead 
of  the  Brain.  Having  got  so  far  how  would  it  do  to  read 
Mr.  Ruskin's  words  at  the  beginning  of  this  chapter? 

THE  BUSINESS  COLLEGE 

Black  Eye.  —  It  is  not  much  of  a  compliment  to  our  High 
Schools  that  when  many  of  the  pupils  graduate  from  them 
they  turn  to  the  Business  College,  or  the  Technical  School; 
and  that  thousands  go  to  these  institutions  when  their  grade 
studies  are  finished  without  even  peeping  in  on  the  "  regulars  " 
to  get  their  minds  trained.  They  go  without  the  old  line 
insurance,  as  it  were,  and  take  the  policy  of  the  fraternal 
orders.  But  why  should  builders  and  supply  men  have  to  pay 
for  this  outside  training  for  their  sons  while  the  High  Schools 
are  free? 

The  High  School  is  deficient  because  it  does  not  give  the 
training  required  for  business  or  building.  It  takes  the  taxes 
cheerfully  enough,  and  asks  for  more,  and  still  more,  but 
applies  them  in  one  direction  only,  and  that  not  the  one 
tradesmen  need. 

Valuable    Course.  —  Much   of  value   may  be   learned   in   a 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    329 

Business  College  by  Dombey,  Jr.,  if  the  High  School  mistake 
is  not  repeated.  A  contractor  is  not  a  banker,  nor  an  account- 
ant, nor  a  bookkeeper,  nor  a  stenographer.  Whatever  is  re- 
quired to  make  him  a  better  building  contractor  should  be 
taken  from  the  Business  College,  and  only  that.  In  another 
chapter  a  pruned  down  system  of  bookkeeping  is  presented 
that  every  Business  College  in  the  land  would  condemn.  They 
forget  that  a  contractor  wants  as  little  of  that  as  he  can  get 
along  with,  and  it  is  often  wonderful  how  little  can  be  made 
to  serve. 

The  arithmetical  "  stunts "  and  accomplishments  that  are 
valuable  enough  for  a  professor  are  useless  for  a  bricklayer. 
It  is  a  hundred  times  more  important  for  a  contractor  to  be 
a  good  estimator  of  everything  in  connection  with  a  building 
than  an  expert  at  juggling  interest  and  discount  tables,  and 
adding  14  columns  of  figures  with  one  hand  tied  behind  his 
back.  As  to  arithmetical  exercise  every  builder  gets  all  of 
that  he  needs.  Some  contractors  figure  in  their  sleep.  To 
tell  one  to  take  arithmetical  exercise  is  like  recommending  a 
mail-carrier  to  walk  for  his  health. 


THE   TECHNICAL    SCHOOLS 

We  now  come  to  a  class  of  educational  factories  that  do 
work  of  a  more  practical  nature.  The  training  in  these  schools, 
apart  from  the  language  grind,  is  closely  related  to  the  actual 
requirements  of  the  building  business.  They  are  doing  excel- 
lent work,  and  there  ought  to  be  more  of  them — say  one  free 
school  in  every  city.  Our  student  should  take  only  what  he 
requires  from  the  Business  College,  and  spend  the  rest  of  his 
time  in  the  Technical  School. 

Dangers.  —  But  there  are  at  least  two  dangers  that  need  to 
be  guarded  against  here:  Someone  has  said  that  the  greatest 
profession  of  our  day  is  business.  Now  our  student  is  pre- 
paring himself  for  this  profession,  and  not  for  that  of  architect, 
or  engineer,  or  language  teacher.  The  course  should  be  laid  out 
to  suit  his  needs  and  not  those  of  -an  architect.  Somehow  or 
other  the  theorists  always  repeat  the  mistake  of  the  High 
Schools,  and  try  to  make  our  young  Dombey  go  in  ways  that 
lead  to  the  wrong  terminal.  They  start  him  off  all  right,  but 
switch  him  on  to  a  side  track.  To  repeat  the  illustration  al- 


330     CONTRACTORS'  AXD  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

ready  given,  it  is  far  more  important  that  estimating  should 
be  thoroughly  studied  than  the  differences  of  the  various 
architectural  styles.  If  the  proposition  is  reversed  the  situa- 
tion can  be  seen  at  a  glance.  Suppose  a  young  man  is  in  a 
technical  school  studying  architecture,  what  would  you  think 
of  the  wisdom  of  those  who  made  him  spend  his  time  learning 
how  to  estimate  buildings?  That  is  a  necessary  part  of  his 
training  but  a  subordinate  part,  and  he  can  gather  as  much 
knowledge  as  he  requires  as  he  gets  acquainted  with  con- 
tractors. His  principal  studies  have  to  be  devoted  to  the 
art  and  science  of  building,  and  not  so  much  to  the  cost 
side. 

But  the  prospective  builder  has  to  approach  the  problem 
from  the  other  end.  The  more  he  can  learn  of  the  architect's 
work  the  better,  but  something  else  has  to  come  first.  The 
architect  and  builder  are  to  be  complementary  to  each  other. 
Neither  one  is  to  "  know  it  all,"  but  each  is  to  understand  a 
part.  Each  is  to  be  one  leg  of  a  pair  of  scissors,  that  when 
joined  will  cut  the  cloth  to  perfection.  But  some  of  the 
professors  would  do  all  the  sharpening  and  oiling  on  one  leg 
only. 

Young  Bones.  —  The  other  danger  is  that  young  Dombey 
will  stay  too  long  in  this  new  school. 

There  are  many  families  that  have  been  in  the  circus 
business  for  generations.  Almost  from  the  time  their  boys  and 
girls  are  able  to  stand,  the  training  begins  and  is  kept  steadily 
up,  with  what  results  we  know  when  we  hold  our  breath  and 
see  them  swinging  in  the  air.  If  the  trainers  waited  till  the 
young  bones  had  set  there  would  be  no  such  success. 

So  it  is  with  trades,  learning  languages,  and  mostly  every- 
thing else.  One  learns  best  when  young.  This  does  not  mean 
that  children  should  be  sent  out  on  buildings,  for  in  general 
no  one  under  sixteen  should  be  allowed  on  them,  and  the  trade 
and  manual  training  schools  give  the  necessary  dexterity  in 
safer  surroundings;  but  it  does  mean  that  it  is  a  mistake  to 
keep  a  boy  in  a  Technical  School  until  he  is  twenty  years  old 
and  educate  him  away  from  his  life  business.  Between  sixteen 
and  twenty  he  can  learn  a  trade  better  than  between  twenty 
and  twenty-four. 

Many  who  cannot  take  a  course  in  such  schools  through  the 
day  can  do  so  in  the  evening. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     331 
SECTION  II 

BUILDING  THE  SCHOOL 

"  Stamp   each   stone   with   earnest   feeling, 
In  the  rock  thy  soul  revealing." 

Bad  Types.  —  There  are  some  correspondence  schools  which 
seem  to  think  it  necessary,  in  the  endeavor  to  make  more  money 
than  their  owners  really  require,  to  send  out  a  few  rather 
vulgar  advertisements  which  would  not  have  received  much 
favor  from  the  old-time  class  of  American  mechanics. 

They  want  their  students  to  "  step  out  of  the  dinner  pail 
class."  That  is  good  advice  in  one  way,  for  we  are  now  so 
close  to  the  billionaire  that  men  on  buildings  and  elsewhere 
should  be  able,  as  a  general  rule,  to  get  their  necessary  food 
without  having  to  carry  it  in  a  pail  like  horse  feed  to  be 
swallowed  cold  at  the  side  of  a  building.  But  this  is  not  the 
meaning.  The  underlying  idea  is  to  step  out  of  the  class  that 
labors  with  its  hands. 

The  illustrations  show  one  of  their  graduates  with  an  im- 
perious, Julius  Csesar  mien,  ordering  some  poor  looking  sneak 
with  tools  in  his  hand  to  go  thus  and  so,  and  to  be  tolerably 
lively  about  it. 

Mistaken  Idea.  —  If  young  Dombey  thinks  that  he  is  going 
to  enter  among  a  class  of  men  of  the  kind  represented  in  such 
pictures,  and  merely  wants  to  learn  their  business  to  some 
extent  and  get  away  from  them  as  soon  as  possible  to  put 
on  the  "  harsh  exterior "  and  play  Napoleon  Csesar  with  the 
fierce  mien  ever  afterwards,  he  is  sadly  mistaken,  and  should 
choose  another  calling.  Building  mechanics  have  their  faults, 
but  they  average  up  fairly  well — well  enough  to  make  anyone 
suprised  to  think  that  any  reputable  institution  would  not 
know  better  than  send  out  such  sneak  pictures  to  make  money. 

Trade  Course.  —  Remembering  always  that  a  good  deal  of 
useful  information  and  skill  have  been  acquired  in  the  manual 
training  classes,  how  would  the  following  "  curriculum  "  do  ? 

Two  years  at  bricklaying  and  masonry. 

Two  years  at  carpentry  and  planing-mill  work. 

One  year  at  plastering. 

One  year  at  plumbing  and  heating. 


332     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Six  months  at  structural  iron  work. 

Six  months  at  painting. 

Three  months  at  electrical  work. 

Or  3  years  might  be  taken  at  carpentry  or  masonry,  including 
stone  cutting,  and  plumbing  and  heating  omitted,  as  these 
branches  are  not  often  included  in  a  main  contract.  In  North- 
ern climates  bricklaying  could  occupy  the  summer  months 
and  planing-mill  work  be  taken  up  in  winter.  This  would 
shorten  the  course. 

When  men  say  that  they  keep  on  learning  something  new 
in  their  trades  all  their  lives  no  one  should  expect  to  master 
any  trade  in  a  year  or  two,  but  a  good  sound  practical  knowl- 
edge can  be  obtained.  In  after  life,  as  a  contractor  doing  all 
kinds  of  work,  this  knowledge  would  be  useful  to  young  Dom- 
bey.  His  men  would  soon  understand  that  they  were  not  deal- 
ing with  a  novice.  In  this  connection  the  following  paragraph 
from  Machinery  is  worth  reading: 

"  In  these  days  when  so  much  has  been  said  about  specializa- 
tion and  about  the  necessity  for  any  young  man  in  the  technical 
field  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  a  certain  branch,  it  may 
be  well  to  accentuate  the  point  that  specialization  may  be 
carried  too  far.  The  man  who  becomes  too  one-sided  in  his 
work  may  be  useful  to  a  less  extent  than  he  would  have  been 
had  he,  while  making  a  particular  study  of  a  special  field, 
devoted  some  time  to  broadening  his  intellect  in  various  ways. 
The  truly  great  men  of  this,  as  well  as  former,  ages  are  men 
who  have  not  confined  themselves  to  a  small  sphere  of  useful- 
ness. It  is  true  that  it  will  not  do  to  divide  one's  interests 
between  too  many  things  at  a  time.  Do  one  thing  at  a  time, 
and  do  it  well,  but  do  not  think  that  the  time  has  come  when 
general  information  in  regard  to  all  the  things  that  surround 
us  in  life  is  useless  simply  because  it  is  not  possible  to  become 
master  of  all  the  arts.  Perhaps,  on  the  other  hand,  there  never 
was  a  time  when  the  man  with  a  broad  view  had  a  greater 
chance.  The  specialization  in  all  lines  of  industry  has  limited 
the  opportunities  for  the  development  of  men  of  varied  ex- 
periences, but  such  men  are  necessary  for  the  executive 
positions.  There  is  for  this  reason  a  premium  on  the  services 
of  the  man  who  has  been  able  to  acquire  a  general,  even  if 
limited,  knowledge  of  the  industries,  the  business  and  other 
conditions  outside  of  his  own  branch;  and  because  such  knowl- 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     333 

edge  is  becoming  more  scarce,  as  the  specialization  becomes 
more  systematized,  there  is  all  the  more  reason  for  not  being 
deluded  by  the  general  outcry  that  a  man  to  be  truly  successful 
must  be  a  specialist,  and  nothing  but  a  specialist.  To  a 
certain  limit  the  man  who  is  a  specialist,  and  nothing  but  a 
specialist,  is  more  successful  than  his  fellow-workers;  but  this 
is  in  the  secondary  positions,  when  he  is  working  under  the 
guidance  of  men  who  can  supplement  his  lack  of  general 
development.  When  the  moment  comes  that  the  place  of 
managing  the  whole  concern  is  to  be  filled,  the  specialist  is 
left  where  he  is,  because  he  is  filling  his  place  so  exceeding 
well,  and  the  man  who  never  was  thought  much  of  where  but 
one  of  his  many  faculties  came  into  play,  is  promoted  to  the 
place  where  he  can  give  full  sway  to  his  general  knowledge 
and  his  varied  interests;  and  the  specialist  who  in  his  one- 
sidedness  thinks  that  he  was  the  person  logically  fit  for  the 
promotion,  thinks  himself  badly  ignored  and  his  ability  mis- 
understood; he  does  not  realize  that  with  all  our  specialization 
the  '  all  around  man  '  still  holds  his  own." 

While  the  trade  course  was  going  on,  a  few  evenings  per 
week  in  winter  could  be  occupied  with  architecture,  estimating, 
and  the  reading  of  trade  papers.  When  the  time  came  and 
the  course  was  ended  our  student  would  have  a  far  broader 
grasp  of  the  building  business  than  most  have  who  are  in  it. 
We  may  at  least  set  up  a  high  ideal,  if  we  cannot  all  attain  it. 

Two  Ways.  —  Dombey,  Jr.,  would  have  found  out  that  there 
are  two  ways  of  learning,  and  this  is  something  that  many 
never  discover.  There  is  the  school  way  and  the  trade  way. 
Knowledge  is  knowledge,  no  matter  how  obtained;  and  brick 
bonds,  for  example,  may  be  learned  better  on  the  wall  than 
in  the  classroom.  Some  of  the  classroom  work  is  of  no  use 
around  the  building  proper,  and  gives  not  one  whit  of  power 
to  its  possessor.  So  far  as  a  knowledge  of  language  goes,  or 
trigonometry,  or  engineering  problems,  they  are  useless  around 
a  building.  A  builder  might  as  well  study  dentistry  or  the 
making  of  caramels  as  these  things  which  have  their  proper 
place.  Yet  we  have  shallow  men  who  plume  themselves  upon 
being  "  educated "  because  of  such  knowledge,  and  look  upon 
tradesmen  as  uneducated  on  account  of  their  lack  of  the 
diploma. 

Post-Graduate  Course.  —  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  Dombey,  Jr., 


334     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

would  not  think  it  necessary,  like  so  many  Americans,  to  go  to 
Europe  to  complete  his  school  or  technical  education.  Many 
of  us  who  are  "  imported  goods  "  ourselves  would  like  to  be- 
lieve that  the  European  finish  is  superior  to  the  one  supplied 
in  this  republic,  and  thus  required  for  all  model  citizens,  but 
with  90,000,000  people  to  consider,  it  is  hard  to  do  so.  It  may 
be  that  for  some  special  subjects  it  is  well  to  go  there,  but 
nine  times  out  of  ten  it  is  the  fad  of  the  snob.  It  is  akin  to  the 
idea  of  some  kinds  of  Westerners  we  have,  that  children  must 
go  to  the  Eastern  states  to  be  educated.  The  inference  in 
both  cases  is  that  there  is  nothing  fine  enough  at  hand  to 
educate  the  prodigies,  and  this  is  nonsense. 

Nevertheless,  Europe  is  an  interesting  continent,  and  Dombey, 
Jr.,  should  see  it  if  possible  as  a  part  of  the  wider  education 
than  is  taught  in  schools. 

Wider  Field.  —  The  greater  problems  of  citizenship  do  not 
belong  here.  It  may  be  sufficient  to  say  what  the  chapter  on 
"  Big  Contracts "  will  enforce,  that  material  grandeur  and 
building  by  the  square  mile  will  all  be  useless  unless  we  come 
to  understand  that  for  thousands  of  years  one  nation  after 
another  has  been  cast  aside  because  it  failed  to  go  forward. 
They  could  cover  the  earth  with  buildings,  yet  went  in  the 
dust  because  they  would  not  accept  brotherhood  instead  of 
the  masterhood  that  our  maddened  plutocrats  are  fiercely  chas- 
ing after  to-day. 

On  this  American  continent  already  two  nations  have  been 
tried  and  thrown  aside — Spain  and  France.  It  is  now  "  up  to 
us."  While  we  are  all  deeply  interested  in  everything  relating 
to  building  we  might  as  well  understand  that  our  problem  is 
deeper  than  merely  to  repeat  what  has  been  done  on  a  greater 
scale  from  Egypt  down  to  Versailles. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  HIGH  SCHOOLS,  LIBRARIES,  AND  TRADESMEN 

The  Herr  Doctor  Nathaniel  Butler,  professor  of  education  in 
the  University  of  Chicago,  said  to  the  teachers  of  Central  Ohio 
in  November,  1909,  at  Toledo: 

"  The  present  strong  tendency  to  emphasize  industrial  and 
commercial  education  brings  with  it  the  necessity  of  not  for- 
getting that  there  are  other  practical  ends  of  education  besides 
those  related  to  vocation. 

"  The  grade  or  high  school  teacher  is  not  charged  with  re- 
sponsibility for  a  pupil's  vocation  and  career,  but  is  charged 
distinctly  with  the  other  functions  of  making  him  an  in- 
telligent human  being  and  useful  citizen." 

This  may  be  true,  but  many  are  now  asking  how  it  comes 
that  a  knowledge  of  a  language  or  a  science  makes  anyone 
more  intelligent  and  useful  than  an  ability  to  lay  brick,  make 
the  truss  for  a  roof,  carve  wood,  or  design  a  scheme  of  electric 
lighting. 

The  professors  should  read  what  Wendell  Phillips  said  about 
the  proportion  of  book  knowledge  that  runs  things  in  general. 

When  twenty  or  more  of  Mr.  Carnegie's  superintendents  were 
gathered  around  a  table  the  great  Austrian  said,  "  I  suppose, 
Mr.  Schwab,  that  most  of  these  men  have  received  a  technical 
education  ? " 

"  Only  three  of  them  had  any  training.  All  the  others  rose 
from  the  ranks  as  I  did,"  was  the  reply. 

Taxes.  —  In  the  trades,  railroad  work,  and  transportation 
in  general,  there  are  about  5,000,000  people  engaged,  and  so 
far  as  most  of  them  are  concerned  the  High  Schools  might  just 
about  as  well  not  exist.  But  they  have  to  pay  their  share  of 
the  taxes.  They  are  willing  to  let  the  professors  go  on  in  their 
headstrong  way  and  teach  all  the  botany,  physiology,  and 
German  that  they  please,  but  they  want  room  for  something 
else  as  well. 

335 


336     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

Bad  Foundation.  —  As  soon  as  we  pass  out  of  the  ABC 
stage  the  underlying  wrong  idea  is  to  prepare  everybody  for  the 
High  School,  the  College,  and  the  University,  as  these  are  at 
present  organized. 

Supposing  you  had  97  men  going  to  Greenland  and  3  to  the 
Equator,  would  you  equip  the  97  with  the  light  clothes  re- 
quired for  the  3?  You  would  rather  give  them  what  they 
needed,  would  you  not?  Or  would  you  freeze  them  for  the 
sake  of  uniformity  and  the  carrying  out  of  your  pet  theories? 
That  is  what  is  done  with  the  High  Schools — 97  are  frozen 
out  for  the  sake  of  3.  The  literary  side  of  civilization  alone 
is  presented.  Take  it  or  leave  it;  like  it  or  lump  it,  and 
don't  forget  to  pay  your  taxes. 

Chestnut.  —  This  is  the  old  European  idea,  but  Germany 
has  done  more  to  show  its  worthlessness  than  any  other  nation. 
After  the  war  of  1870  she  remodeled  her  school  system,  and 
has  made  wonderful  progress,  world  progress,  since  then. 

Oxford  and  Cambridge  have  carried  out  this  ancient  idea  to 
the  limit,  and  while  splendid  men  have  been  turned  out  of 
these  universities,  in  spite  of  the  classical  load  they  bent  under, 
John  Brisben  Walker  went  so  far  the  other  year  as  to  challenge 
anyone  to  point  out  a  really  first-class  man  produced  by  either, 
— such  a  man,  for  example,  as  Abraham  Lincoln,  who  knew 
English,  and  found  it  sufficient.  Of  course  the  president  of 
a  Western  university  said  that  Lincoln  would  have  been  less 
of  a  boor  if  he  had  had  the  advantage  of  a  college  training, 
but  we  had  our  doubts  about  that,  and  also  about  the  benefit 
of  such  a  course  when  it  left  one  of  its  chief  products  capable 
of  applying  such  a  word  to  such  a  man. 

Figures.  —  The  following  statistics  will  show  just  about 
how  matters  stand  in  the  field  of  the  "  higher  education." 
They  are  from  an  excellent  article  by  F.  W.  Beckman,  pub- 
lished on  October  31,  1909. 

Proportion.  —  Of  500  who  are  enrolled  in  the  first  and 
second  grades  not  more  than  100  will  get  into  the  grammar 
grades;  only  35  or  40  will  get  into  the  High  School;  not  more 
than  10  or  12  will  complete  the  work  there,  and  only  1  will  go 
to  college. 

Think  of  it — 1  in  500.  And  the  taxes  are  paid  for  this  kind 
of  nonsense. 

The  present  educational  system  is  based  upon  the  require- 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    337 

ments  of  the  few  instead  of  on  the  needs  of  the  many;  and 
the  subjects  for  all  above  the  earlier  grades  have  to  be 
arranged  to  suit  Sophocles  Johnson,  Esq. 

Number  of  Scholars.  —  Only  about  half  of  the  population  of 
school  age  below  18  are  actually  enrolled.  In  St.  Louis  about 
2  per  cent,  finish  the  High  School  course;  in  Boston,  4  per 
cent. ;  in  Chicago,  3  per  cent. 

In  1907  with  a  school  population  under  18  of  24,262,930  in 
the  United  States  the  total  enrollment  in  the  High  Schools 
was  770,456;  and  the  graduates  of  that  year  numbered  90,391 
or  about  12  per  cent.  Of  these  only  one- third  intended  to  enter 
college.  This  makes  about  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  the 
total  school  population  of  the  United  States.  Of  the  24,262,930 
only  16,890,818  are  enrolled,  and  less  than  12,000,000  actually 
go  to  school. 

Reasons.  —  Half  of  the  pupils  leave  school,  according  to  some 
statistics  collected,  because  they  find  it  of  no  use.  They  can 
take  Latin,  but  not  practical  electrical  work.  Yet,  of  100  who 
earn  their  living  80  must  work  with  their  hands,  17  go  to  some 
business  or  clerical  pursuit,  and  only  3  or  4  enter  the  pro- 
fessions. 

Trade  Schools  in  Germany.  —  In  the  United  States  there 
are  in  all  about  250  trade  schools,  while  Bavaria  alone  has 
290.  Nearly  everything  of  a  practical  nature  is  taught.  They 
are  High  Schools,  in  a  sense,  but  not  for  the  study  of  irregular 
verbs.  These  are  good  enough  in  their  place,  which  one  might 
be  pardoned  for  wishing  were  anywhere  else  than  on  earth,  but 
even  here  they  do  not  make  up  all  of  life. 

The  population  of  Bavaria  is  just  about  the  same  as  that  of 
New  York  City.  Imagine  290  trade  schools  there. 

In  Berlin  55  per  cent,  of  boys  between  14  and  16  are  in  the 
industrial  schools;  in  Chicago  one-tenth  of  one  per  cent.  In 
Munich  there  are  38  different  kinds  of  technical  schools. 

The  German  Commissioners  to  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  re- 
ported when  they  went  home  that  their  country  had  nothing 
to  fear  from  the  competition  of  the  United  States,  as  our 
strength  had  hitherto  been  in  our  power  to  form  great  combina- 
tions of  capital  like  the  trusts,  and  in  the  enormous  supply  of 
raw  material;  but  that  our  efficiency  is  declining,  owing  to 
the  want  of  training  the  workmen.  It  is  an  old  saying  that 
the  judgment  of  foreigners  is  the  judgment  of  posterity.  They 


338     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

are  not  blinded  by  national  feelings  and  vanity.  The  Verb 
Men  and  Women  are  landing  us  in  trouble,  and  even  for  their 
own  sake  we  must  gently  lead  them  away  from  Sappho  and 
Helen  of  Troy  and  other  ladies  of  ancient  times  of  whom  we 
have  heard  somewhat  too  much. 

New  Tide.  —  There  are  signs  that  the  tide  is  on  the  turn, 
and  that  it  will  flow  and  flood  the  land  in  spite  of  the  Herr 
Professor  Butler  and  his  cohorts  with  their  brooms  trying  to 
hold  it  back. 

In  the  Technical  World  Magazine,  for  December,  1909,  there 
is  an  article  entitled,  "  Making  the  High  School  Democratic." 
It  tells  of  the  progress  of  the  new  kind  of  High  Schools  in 
England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  They  are  turning 
out  boys  and  girls  with  trades  already  fairly  well  learned. 

Fitchburg,  Lynn,  with  her  bells,  and  Ludlow,  in  Massachu- 
setts; Freeport,  111.;  Cincinnati,  Chicago — these  and  other 
cities  have  taken  up  the  system  of  the  New  Order,  which  has 
been  in  vogue  in  Omaha  for  years. 

The  Building  Age,  for  February,  1910,  tells  us  that  Newark, 
N.  J.,  is  about  to  invest  $600,000  in  a  Technical  High  School. 
It  is  to  be  well  equipped  for  both  boys  and  girls.  No  wonder 
that  poor  Niobe  has  been  so  long  in  tears.  They  have  been 
thrusting  Latin  and  algebra  upon  her  instead  of  the  Domestic 
Science  that  progressive  Newark  is  to  offer. 

In  Minnesota,  in  1907,  there  were  only  17  schools  for  manual 
training,  with  2,039  students;  in  1909,  84  and  4,233.  That  is 
reasonably  good  progress  in  two  years. 

But  the  university  professors  in  that  state  want  another 
kind  of  a  reformation,  a  new  way  of  selecting  their  species. 
They  want  to  give  the  High  School  teachers  the  right  to  say 
which  of  the  pupils  shall  be  allowed  to  go  forward  to  the 
university.  According  to  them  64  per  cent,  of  the  freshmen 
who  failed  in  one  year  might  have  been  kept  at  home  if  the 
proper  authority  had  been  vested  in  the  teachers.  Only  those 
are  wanted  who  can  absorb  Greek  and  Trojan  lore. 

Yet  in  the  past  Dr.  Chalmers,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  Charlie  Darwin,  who  wrote  two  good  novels;  Henry 
Ward  Beecher,  Adam  Clark,  and  many  others  well  known  were 
called  dunces  by  the  men  who  taught  them  and  insisted  on 
feeding  them  with  the  regulation,  wrong  kind  of  food.  The 
Herr  Professor  Achilles  Hercules  will  make  everyone  swallow 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     339 

shredded  wheat,    made    from   Minnesota   hard,   or   die   in   the 
attempt. 

PUBLIC  LIBRARIES 

Too  Much  Goth  and  Hun;  Too  Little  Johnson.  —  An  impor- 
tant adjunct  of  the  High  School  is  the  Public  Library,  but  it 
also  needs  a  good  sweeping  out. 

American  libraries  are,  taking  everything  into  consideration, 
the  best  on  earth,  but  they  are,  yet  a  few  laps  .short  of  per- 
fection. With  respect  to  books,  magazines,  and  papers  they 
are  deficient  on  the  trade  side,  and  some  of  them  are  too 
prejudiced.  I  could  not  find  "  The  First  Battle,"  by  that 
publicist,  Jennings  Bryan,  in  a  great  library  controlled  by 
"  gold  bugs." 

But  if  deficient  in  some  lines  they  are  filled  to  the  topmost 
shelf  with  literature  on  others.  They  have  a  carload  of  books 
about  the  Punic  wars,  Goths  and  Vandals,  Medicean  beasts  of 
prey,  "  Shakesperiana,"  and  there  are  novels  enough  to  fill 
several  boxcars  and  sink  a  civilization.  Excellent  as  good 
novels  are,  is  there  to  be  no  limit?  Must  the  forests  be  made 
into  pulp  for  paper,  and  our  shingles  get  so  high-priced  that 
we  cannot  use  them?  Dunlop,  who  grouped  the  history  of  all 
the  novels  of  all  Europe  into  one  essay,  says  that  in  the  nations 
of  modern  Europe  there  have  been  only  250  or  300  distinct 
stories.  He  also  said  that  at  least  200  of  them  are  more  than 
2,000  years  old.  It  would  seem  that  we  have  already  had 
300,000  variations  of  the  original  text,  with  more  a-coming: 

"The   loaded  press  beneath  her   labor  groans, 
And  printers'  devils  shake  their  weary  bones." 

TTsef ulness.  —  It  would  be  almost  as  foolish  to  try  to  get 
along  without  a  first-class  Public  Library  as  without  a  fire 
department,  but  it  is  possible  to  overdo  the  buying  of  the  wrong 
kind  of  "  supplies." 

Cities.  —  The  coming  age  is  to  be  that  of  the  municipalities. 
It  has  been  often  pointed  out  that  the  one  great  failure  in  the 
United  States  is  the  government  of  the  cities.  Yet  a  republic 
must  excel  in  every  respect,  and  this  bad  state  of  affairs  will 
have  to  be  changed.  But  how  little  there  is  on  the  physical 
side  of  development  in  the  average  library  to  help  us  on  the 


340     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

way!  Hun,  yes;  Goth,  OB,  shelf  3,  lefthand  corner;  but 
Johnson  is  too  plebeian  to  be  even  listed.  He  is  Johnson  of 
Ours  merely,  and  carries  no  helmet  and  spear,  but  walks 
sedately  along  in  No.  10  shoes  that  gripe  his  feet. 

More  Books.  —  We  need  more  and  better  popular  and  techni- 
cal books  on  paving,  sewers,  subways,  transportation,  water- 
works, ice-plants,  public  markets,  light,  heat,  and  power,  milk 
supply,  cemeteries,  garbage  disposal,  messenger  and  express 
service,  building  books,  books  on  fire  protection,  model  charters, 
municipal  ownership,  and  a  score  of  other  questions  in  con- 
nection with  the  cities  of  the  future. 

A  library  can  be  made  a  good  paying  investment  if  kept 
up-to-date. 

lifeless.  —  Perhaps  you  have  seen  a  mummy  in  its  case. 
The  Thing  inside  was  once  alive,  but  it  has  been  long  dead. 
So  with  too  many  books  that  fill  the  shelves. 

An  assistant  to  a  scientist  once  asked  him  what  to  do  with 
certain  scientific  books.  "  Take  everything  more  than  10  years 
old  and  throw  it  in  the  cellar,"  was  the  order. 

If  certain  kinds  of  trade  books  are  not  kept  up-to-date  their 
value  ceases.  Instead  of  building  more  shelves  to  hold  more 
books  many  of  those  now  there  should  be  used  for  fuel.  Bless- 
ings on  the  man  who  burnt  the  Alexandrian  library!  He  is 
generally  execrated,  but  he  was  one  of  the  great  benefactors 
of  the  race. 

How  Many.  —  Probably  in  the  whole  world  there  are  not 
10,000  books  worth  preserving.  Let  us  be  liberal  and  call  it 
20,000.  It  is  likely  that  the  human  race  would  get  along 
better  if  all  the  rest  were  burnt  and  ended  forever.  Since 
writing  this  I  have  noticed  that  Professor  Eliot  says  that  all 
we  really  need  can  be  put  on  a  5-foot  shelf.  There  is  some 
hope  for  the  professors  even  yet.  Carlyle,  at  the  end  of  his 
life,  got  down  to  two  books — the  Bible  and  Shakespeare. 

Yet  we  have  libraries  with  millions  of  volumes,  and  their 
dust-fighting  attendants  groan  for  more.  More  are  needed,  but 
we  are  tolerably  well  supplied  with  Greek  and  Trojan  wares 
just  now,  thank  you.  Some  other  day,  perhaps 

The  Library  of  Congress  has  room  for  2,500,000  books,  not 
including  the  roof;  and  the  New  York  Public  Library  for 
4,000,000.  If  books  would  only  save  us  our  calling  and  elec- 
tion were  sure! 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    341 

It  is  hard  on  the  taxpayer,  and  at  least  half  of  it  is  useless. 

The  one  Irish  chief  wrote  to  the  other,  "  Pay  me  my  tribute, 

or  else !  "  The  other  replied,  "I  will  not  pay  you  your 

tribute,  and  if !  " 

We  have  been  paying  tribute  in  schools  and  libraries  to  the 
Literary  Ideal  and  the  classical  forces  too  long,  and  they  must 
now  agree  to  share  the  "  swag "  for  another  kind  of  schools 
and  books,  or  else ! 

Mr.  Roosevelt,  in  an  address  to  the  students  of  the  Agricultu- 
ral College  of  Michigan,  at  Lansing,  said :  "  Our  engineering 
schools  compare  favorably  with  the  best  in  Europe,  whereas 
we  have  done  almost  nothing  to  equip  the  private  soldiers  of 
the  industrial  army — the  mechanic,  the  metal  worker,  the 
carpenter.  Indeed,  too  often  our  schools  train  away  from  the 
shop  and  the  forge.  .  .  .  The  painter,  the  electrical  worker, 
the  foundryman  should  be  trained  alike  in  head  and  in  hand 
...  To  train  boys  and  girls  in  merely  literary  accomplish- 
ments, to  the  total  exclusion  of  industrial,  manual,  and  techni- 
cal training,  tends  to  unfit  them  for  industrial  work;  and  in 
real  life  most  work  is  industrial." 


CHAPTER  V 
A  LITTLE  LIBRARY 

Inquiries  are  often  made  as  to  what  books  it  is  advisable 
to  purchase.  A  contractor  cannot  afford  to  run  to  a  library 
for  a  technical  work.  "  When  he  wants  it  he  wants  it  badly," 
and  he  ought  to  own  at  least  a  few  standard  works.  When 
he  becomes  rich  he  may  buy  more. 

The  David  Williams  Company  lists  the  following  books, 
including,  it  will  be  noticed,  a  good  cheap  arithmetic,  where 
rules  are  laid  down  for  simple  problems  in  mensuration  and 
decimals : 

AUTHOR  TITLE  PRICE 

Arthur.                The  New  Building  Estimator  $2.50 

Baker,  M.  N.     Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation..  1.25 

Baker,  W.  H.     Cement  Workers'  Handbook 50 

Birkmire.            American  Theaters    3.00 

Blakely  } 

( Passaic       v  Manual  of  Structural  Steel    5.00 

Steel  Co.)     ) 

Building  Age.    Series  of  Designs  (5  vols.)    5.00 

Cambria  Steel  )  Handbook  2  00 

Company.        \ 

Carnegie  Steel  j  ^^  c          nion 2  00 

Company.       j 
Carver.  Handbook    for    Inspectors   of   Reinforced 

Concrete     50 

Cosgrove.             Principles  and  Practice  of  Plumbing   .  .  .  3.00 

Crosby.                Building  Code  of  New  York,  etc.,  1911  .  .  3.00 

Edminster.          Architectural  Drawing 2.00 

Gilbreth.              Bricklaying  System 3.00 

Gilbreth.             Concrete  System    3.00 

342 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK  343 

AUTHOR  TITLE  PRICE 

Gillette.  Handbook  of  Cost  Data  $  5.00 

Hodgson,  F.  T.  Estimating  Frame  and  Brick  Houses  ...  1.00 
Hodgson,  F.  T.  Concretes,  Cements,  Mortars,  Plasters, 

and  Stuccos  1.50 

Hodgson,  F.  T.  Light  and  Heavy  Timber  Framing 2.00 

Hicks,  I.  P.  Builders'  Guide 1.00 

Hicks,  I.  P.  Estimators'  Price  Book  1.00 

Jacoby.  Structural  Details  or  Elements  of  Design 

in  Heavy  Framing 2.25 

King,  A.  G.  Practical  Steam  and  Hot  Water  Heating  3.00 

Lewis.  Handbook  for  Cement  Users 2.50 

Hendricks.  Commercial  Register  10.00 

Jones  &  )  TT     . 

y  Useful  Information 50 

Laughhn.         j 

Joslin.  Estimating  the  Cost  of  Buildings 1.00 

Kent.  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket-Book 5.00 

Kidder.  Architects'   and  Builders'   Pocket-Book..  5.00 

Kidder.  Building  Construction  and  Superintendence: 

Part  I,  Masons'  Work   6.00 

Part  II,  Carpenters'  Work   4.00 

Part    III,    Roof    Trusses    and    Trussed 

Roofs     3.00 

Kidder.  Strength  of  Beams,  Floors,  and  Roofs   .  .  2.00 

Maginnis.  How  to  Frame  a  House 1.00 

Maginnis.  Roof  Framing  Made  Easy   1.00 

Maginnis.  Practical   Centering    1.50 

Melsy.  Progressive  Carpentry 1.00 

Milne.  Standard  Arithmetic 75 

Radford.  Practical  Carpentry  (2  vols.)    2.00 

Radford.  Steel  Square  and,  Its  Uses    (2  vols.)    ...  2.00 

Radford.  Framing    5.00 

Richey,  H.  G.     The  Building  Foreman's  Pocket-Book  and 

Ready  Reference 5.00 

Richey,  H.  G.  Handbook  for  Superintendents,  Archi- 
tects, Builders,  and  Building  In- 
spectors    4.00 

Richey,  H.  G.  Stone  and  Brickmasons'  Ready  Reference  1.50 
Richey,  H.  G.  Carpenters'  and  Woodworkers'  Ready 

Reference  1.50 


344     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

AUTHOR  TITLE  PRICE 

Richey,  H.  G.     Cement  Workers'  and  Plasterers'  Ready 

Reference   1.50 

Richey,  H.  G.    Plumbers'  and  Steamfitters'  and  Tinners' 

Ready  Reference    1.50 

Snow,  W.  G.     Furnace  Heating   1.75 

Snow,  W.  G.      Principles  of  Furnace  Heating 2.00 

Starbuck.            Standard  Practical  Plumbing 3.00 

A  correspondent  of  The  Engineering  News  sent  the  list  below 
for  young  engineers: 

1.  American  Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-Book. 

2.  Searle's  Field  Engineering. 

3.  Kent's  Pocket-Book. 

4.  WaddelPs  De  Pontibus. 

5.  Carnegie's  Handbook. 

6.  Byrne's  Inspection  of  Materials  and  Workmanship. 

7.  Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics. 

8.  Merriman  &  Jacoby's  Roofs  and  Bridges. 

9.  Merriman's  Hydraulics. 

10.  Webb's  Railroad  Construction. 

11.  Wellington's  Location  of  Railways. 

12.  Johnson's  Modern  Framed  Structures. 

13.  Materials  of  Construction. 

14.  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying. 

15.  Contracts  and  Specifications. 

16.  Fol well's  Sewerage. 

17.  Fol  well's  Water  Supply  Engineering. 

18.  Baker's  Masonry  Construction. 

19.  Baker's  Highway  Construction. 

20.  Patton's   Civil   Engineering. 

21.  Patton's  Treatise  on  Foundations. 

22.  Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering. 

23.  Vega's  Logarithms. 

24.  Reinhardt's  Lettering. 

25.  Reinhardt's  Technic  of  Mechanical  Drafting. 

26.  Edminster's  Structural  Drawing. 

Any  of  the  books  listed  above  may  be  purchased  through  the 
David  Williams  Co.,  239  W.  39th  Street,  N.  Y.  See  their 
catalog  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     345 

REMARKS 

List  prices  are  given.  If  several  books  are  bought  at  once 
a  reduction  may  be  secured. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  are  no  books  listed  that  deal 
exclusively  with  reinforced  concrete  work.  The  lists  are  for 
the  use  of  CONTRACTORS,  and  not  architects  and  engineers. 
For  a  contractor  to  buy  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred  books 
listed  on  reinforced  work  would  be  to  throw  away  money.  But 
full  details  of  quantities  and  costs  are  given  in  the  "  Esti- 
mator." 

Three  structural  steel  books  are  listed.  They  give  size  and 
weight  of  all  steel  shapes.  A  builder  needs  only  one,  but 
sometimes  he  can  get  this  one  free  of  cost,  and  a  choice  is 
given.  If  he  is  buying  steel  either  directly  or  through  a  sub- 
contractor he  can  usually  secure  a  copy. 

"  Useful  Information "  is  an  old  favorite  in  the  building 
trades.  It  has  500  pages,  and  is  now  in  its  16th  edition.  It 
measures  only  2"x3i4"x%",  and  is  thus  easily  carried  in 
the  pocket. 

Gillette's  "  Handbook "  is  for  engineers,  and  while  useful 
enough  for  a  building  contractor  is  not  really  necessary.  It  is 
full  of  valuable  statistics  on  heavy  engineering  work.  Ten 
thousand  copies  were  sold  in  the  first  two  years  of  publication. 

I  can  strongly  and  conscientiously  recommend  the  chapter 
on  the  cost  of  erecting  buildings.  When  I  looked  through  it  I 
was  impressed  with  the  fact  that  I  had  written  a  good  deal 
of  it  myself,  not  exactly  in  my  dreams,  but  in  the  pages  of 
the  "  Estimator."  To  see  one's  data  lifted  wholesale  is  com- 
plimentary. It  makes  him  feel  that  his  work  all  through  must 
be  like  Ivory  soap — 99T^  per  cent.  pure. 

Kidder's  "  Pocket-Book "  needs  no  praise.  It  is  standard 
all  over.  It  furnishes  a  quarry  from  which  all  builders  and 
book  writers  take  an  occasional  stone,  if  their  modesty  keeps 
them  from  filling  a  wagon.  The  Chicago  architect,  who  was 
the  "  father  of  the  skyscraper,"  strongly  recommended  all 
young  architects  to  buy  Kidder. 

Trautwine's  "  Handbook "  is  another  great  publication  for 
engineers.  A  thoroughly  revised  edition  was  issued  in  1911. 

An  interesting  fact  in  connection  with  "  Trautwine  "  is  that 
three  generations  of  the  family  have  written  and  revised  it. 


346     CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

The  "  American  Civil  Engineers'  Pocket-Book,"  published  in 
1911,  has  proven  a  very  valuable  reference  work.  It  was 
written  by  a  corps  of  experts,  each  section  being  prepared 
by  a  specialist  in  the  subject  under  discussion. 

Kent's  book  is  for  mechanical  engineers,  and  not  of  much 
use  to  builders,  except  for  chimneys,  boilers,  and  such  work. 
More  than  40,000  copies  have  been  sold. 

Baker's  "  Municipal  Engineering  and  Sanitation  "  is  a  book 
I  like  to  recommend.  It  is  an  excellent  popularly  written 
work  on  the  New  Cities  of  the  future. 

A  great  book  for  addresses  is  Hendricks'  "  Commercial 
Register  of  the  United  States."  But  it  is  expensive. 

FREE  LITERATURE 

There  is  no  country  like  this  for  sending  out  so  much 
valuable  literature  "  free,  gratis,  and  for  nothing."  The 
advertisements  in  the  trade  papers  should  be  watched  for 
catalogs  and  handbooks.  A  few  are  listed  below: 

Sweet's  Index  is  the  best  of  all  if  you  can  get  it.  About 
10,000  copies  are  sent  out  every  year.  All  architects  get  one, 
large  contractors,  engineers,  purchasing  agents,  and  city,  state, 
and  government  officials.  The  old  copy  may  be  obtained  from 
an  architect  when  he  gets  a  new  one.  In  one  year  4,000  were 
transferred  in  this  way.  Any  copy,  old  or  new,  is  worth 
having. 

It  is  purely  an  advertising  scheme,  a  catalog  of  catalogs, 
but  it  seems  that  everything  worth  listing  in  connection  with 
building  is  to  be  found  in  its  pages.  Instead  of  a  thousand 
and  one  leaflets  and  catalogs  of  different  sizes  there  is  a  bound 
book  of  more  than  1,400  large  pages  carefully  indexed.  It  is 
to  the  trades  what  Poole's  Index  is  to  the  libraries. 

It  is  published  by  the  "Architectural  Record  Company," 
New  York. 

Another  first-class  book  is  thfe  "  Building  Code  Recommended 
by  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,"  New  York.  It 
has  been  quoted  from  often  enough  in  this  volume  to  show 
its  value.  To  go  through  it  carefully  is  like  taking  a  course 
in  good  building  construction. 

"  Concrete  Construction  About  the  Home  and  on  the  Farm  " 
is  an  excellent  pamphlet  sent  out  by  the  Atlas  Portland  Cement 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     347 

Company,  New  York.  The  fifth  edition,  1905,  was  of  400,000 
copies.  The  1909  edition  has  170  pages,  and  is  well  illustrated. 

The  Northwestern  Expanded  Metal  Company,  Chicago,  sends 
out  several  booklets. 

The  Trussed  Concrete  Steel  Company  of  Detroit,  has  some 
free  publications  that  deal  with  the  new  styles  of  building. 

The  Tin  Roofers'  Handbook  is  supplied  by  E.  L.  Seabrook, 
2213  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 

The  Association  of  American  Portland  Cement  Manufactu- 
rers, Land  Title  Building,  Philadelphia,  distributes  about  20 
free  bulletins  about  all  kinds  of  cement  and  reinforced  concrete 
work. 

The  Departments  of  the  United  States  Government  send  out 
good  building  information  such  as  the  Report  on  the  San  Fran- 
cisco fire. 

Millbooks  are  free  in  the  West  to  builders.  Sears,  Roebuck 
&  Company,  The  Chicago  House  Wrecking  Company,  Schaller- 
Hoerr  Company,  all  of  Chicago,  send  out  free  mill  and  other 
books.  Gordon,  Van  Tine  &  Company,  Davenport,  Iowa,  sends 
out  mill  and  lumber  books. 

This  is  but  a  hint  of  the  richness  of  the  "  free-lunch  "  counter 
of  the  Building  Business. 

Some  readers  may  wonder  what  the  title  of  No.  4,  on  page 
344,  means.  It  is  a  bridge  book,  and  furnishes  an  amusing 
illustration  of  the  language  nonsense  that  I  have  dealt  with  on 
page  325.  When  the  author  was  asked  why  he  chose  a  Latin 
title  for  his  work  in  a  land  where  most  people  use  English, 
he  said  that  he  had  never  had  a  chance  to  apply  his  linguistic 
knowledge  since  leaving  college,  and  never  expecting  another, 
he  took  the  one  opportunity  of  a  lifetime. 

How  long,  do  you  suppose,  preachers,  schoolmasters,  philolo- 
gists, and  their  kind  would  study  bridge  work,  roof  con- 
struction, reinforced  concrete  designs,  etc.,  if  we  told  them  it 
was  to  "  train  their  mind,"  when  they  got  only  one  chance  of 
a  lifetime  to  use  the  knowledge?  Not  many  years.  There  are 
too  many  simple  Simons  in  the  construction  and  transporta- 
tion businesses — also  in  others. 


CHAPTER  VI 
BIG  CONTRACTS 

"  We  have  an  undue  appreciation  of  ourselves,  an  exagger- 
ated estimate  of  our  achievements,  of  our  inventions,  of  our 
contributions  to  public  comfort,  of  our  place,  in  fact,  in  the 
great  procession  of  the  ages.  We  seem  to  imagine  that  whether 
knowledge  will  die  with  us  or  not,  it  certainly  began  with  us." 
— WENDELL  PHILLIPS,  in  The  Lost  Arts. 

We  live  in  a  wonderful  age  of  steam,  gas,  compressed  air, 
telegraphs,  telephones,  electricity,  flying  machines,  and '  even 
talking  machines  and  moving  pictures.  If  it  had  all  been 
suddenly  thrown  before  the  men  who  founded  this  republic 
their  hearts  would  have  failed  them  for  fear.  If  the  British 
redcoats  had  seen  a  train  coming  towards  them  at  60  miles  an 
hour  they  would  have  taken  to  their  heels — at  least  those  of 
them  who  had  not  fainted.  It  is  astonishing  even  to  us  who 
can  look  back  only  a  few  decades.  And  where  it  will  end  no 
man  can  say. 

And  yet  when  reading  of  what  other  civilizations  have  done 
it  sometimes  seems  that  we  are  but  children.  In  a  score  of 
ways  they  outshone  us. 

The  colors  of  the  old  civilizations  last  for  a  thousand  years 
and  beyond,  but  ours  fade  in  a  century.  The  glass  we  put  in 
our  modern  cathedrals  is  not  nearly  so  rich  as  that  in  the 
ones  built  in  the  "  dark  ages,"  as  they  would  look  to  us  if  we 
went  back  by  some  miracle.  We  pride  ourselves  on  the  fact 
that  we  can  partly  reproduce  some  of  the  Greek  buildings.  We 
try  to  copy  their  sculptures,  but  cannot  equal  them. 

The  gems  in  an  Italian  museum  are  so  finely  carved  that  a 
microscope  is  required  to  look  at  them.  On  a  little  ring 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter  there  is  a  figure  of 
Hercules,  and  the  hair  on  the  eyebrows  can  be  counted.  On 
another  ring  that  Michel  Angelo  used  to  wear,  two  thousand 
years  old  it  is,  there  are  seven  women  engraved. 

348 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     349 

Our  best  surgeons'  tools  rust  in  India,  but  the  steel  made 
in  Damascus  at  the  time  of  the  Saracens  did  not  rust. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  things  they  did  in  minute  work. 
They  could  make  colors  that  lasted,  carve  hairs  on  eyebrows 
that  were  no  larger  than  the  head  of  a  pin,  and  make  flexible 
steel  and  things  of  that  kind  without  end,  but  could  they 
build? 

No  Portland.  —  In  some  of  their  fine  stone  buildings  they 
did  not  use  cement,  but  made  the  joints  so  close  and  smooth 
that  a  knife  blade  could  not  be  forced  in  between  them.  And 
they  carried  through  some  big  contracts.  It  may  temper  our 
pride  and  do  us  good  just  to  glance  at  a  few. 

THE  WALLS  OF  BABYLON 

We  used  to  think  of  the  Chinese  Wall  as  the  greatest  of  all 
the  walls,  but  the  one  at  Babylon,  that  London  of  the  past, 
was  60  miles  around,  about  90  feet  thick,  and  350  high,  of 
solid  brick.  There  is  a  contract  large  enough  for  any  builder 
from  Chicago  to  Seattle. 

This  wall  had  9,979,200,000  cubic  feet,  which  at  22y2  for 
brick  of  wall  measure  means  224,532,000,000,  or  in  actual,  kiln 
count  at  the  national  size,  164,657,000,000.  Laid  in  the  best 
manner,  as  all  ancient  work  was,  in  Portland  cement  grouted 
we  may  put  it  at  $10  per  1,000,  wall  measure  if  done  here 
now.  That  contract  would  amount  to  $2,245,320,000.  What 
guaranty  company  would  go  your  bond  for  the  full  amount  of 
this  contract?  Where  would  you  buy  cement  for  it?  It  would 
take  200,000,000  barrels  and  more,  or  all  the  output  of  the 
United  States  for  four  years  just  for  one  wall.  For  every 
human  being  in  the  country  to-day  there  would  have  to  be 
dug  a  yard  of  sand,  or  90,000,000  yards. 

Yet  Babylon  was  founded  about  4,000  years  ago,  and  lasted 
down  to  500  years  before  the  Christian  era. 

Chicago,  bragging,  swaggering  Chicago,  the  pride  and  shame 
of  the  great  West,  uses  900,000,000  brick  in  a  year.  It  would 
have  taken  this  supply  for  more  than  180  years  just  to  build 
the  outside  wall  of  Babylon,  with  nothing  left  for  the  inside 
one — some  say  that  there  were  two  walls  inside — and  not  even 
a  brickbat  for  the  city  itself. 

The   Gardens.  —  Babylon  occupied  about  5   times  as  much 


350    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

area  as  London,  and  three-fourths  of  it  was  in  parks  and 
gardens.  Our  cities  with  their  little  green  corners  in  a 
wilderness  of  tenements  do  not  begin  to  compare  with  the  old 
ones. 

The  hanging  gardens  were  raised  as  high  as  mountains, 
terrace  upon  terrace,  and  covered  with  palaces  and  glory. 
Even  the  king,  who  did  most  to  make  a  wonder  of  this  city, 
looked  upon  these  gardens  as  the  great  triumph  of  his  life. 

In  the  old  times  they  had  the  tower  of  Babel,  the  first 
sky-scraper,  and  later  on  the  temple  of  Belus,  which  covered 
32  acres,  had  a  base  3,000  feet  in  circumference,  and  walls 
30  feet  thick. 

No  wonder  Nebuchadnezzar  got  the  "  Big  Head,"  and  swelled 
up  and  said,  "  Is  not  this  great  Babylon  that  I  have  built 
by  the  might  of  my  power  and  for  the  honor  of  my  majesty  ?  " 
He  became  so  cruel  and  strutted  so  much  that  he  had  to  be 
sent  to  grass — this  great  man  who  owned  Babylon  actually 
had  to  eat  grass.  There  are  some  to-day  who  would  do  well 
to  think  of  him.  They  are  pigmies  in  power  to  what  he  was, 
but  even  he  had  to  eat  dirt. 

Nevertheless,  what  a  fine  order  it  would  be  on  a  spring 
morning  for  165,000  million  brick  at  $7  =  $1,155,000,000.00; 
for  $350,000,000  worth  of  Portland  cement;  and  $82,000,000 
worth  of  sand.  The  danger  is  that  if  a  Chicago  man  got  such 
an  order  he  would  erect  25  gates  of  solid  brass  such  as  they 
had  soaring  in  the  wall  at  Babylon,  and  put  them  up  in  his 
own  city. 

They  had  "  technical  "  men  there,  too.  They  knew  mathe- 
matics, and  a  great  many  other  things,  and  yet  went  all  to 
the  devil.  Abraham  Lincoln's  favorite  poem  Avas,  "  Why 
should  the  spirit  of  mortal  be  proud  ?  " 

One  night  in  Babylon  the  handwriting  on  the  wall  appeared, 
and  His  Serene  Highness  lost  his  serenity  and  shook;  and  that 
was  the  beginning  of  the  end  that  came  long  ago  and  left 
but  miles  of  sand  and  ruins. 

NINEVEH 

This  city  was  15  miles  long  and  8  wide.  The  wall  was  100 
feet  high  and  thick  enough  for  three  chariots  to  drive  abreast. 
Big,  certainly,  but  far  behind  the  one  at  Babylon. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     351 

This  was  another  revel  of  building,  building,  and  more 
building.  The  architects  were  so  busy  with  one  palace  after 
another  that  they  had  no  time  to  eat;  and  the  air  was  filled 
with  the  smoke  of  the  brickyards. 

This  empire  and  civilization  with  its  great  capital  went  to 
grass  also.  Even  Big  Building  and  Big  Business  did  not 
save  it. 

THE   CHINESE   WALL 

We  do  not  expect  much  from  "  Chinks,"  but  even  they  have 
carried  through  some  tolerably  large  contracts  of  masonry 
and  sculpture.  The  great  wall  took  about  100  years  to  build, 
and  it  was  finished  over  2,000  years  ago. 

The  Chinese  wall  was  1,200  miles  long,  from  15  to  30  feet 
high,  and  wide  enough  for  half  a  dozen  people  to  ride  abreast. 
This  is  not  nearly  such  a  wall  as  the  one  at  Babylon,  but  is 
still  considerable  of  a  structure.  Not  many  bricklayers  would 
care  to  take  a  time  contract  for  a  1,200  mile  structure  either 
by  lump  sum,  percentage,  or  cost  plus.  It  would  require  too 
many  stop  watches  and  flags,  not  to  say  anything  of  brick 
and  mortar.  How  could  the  bricklayers  at  Toledo  know  what 
was  going  on  near  New  York?  The  flags  could  never  be  seen. 

Averaging  the  height  at  22  feet,  and  the  width  at  25,  we 
have  78,400,000,000  brick  in  wall  measure,  which,  laid  at  $10, 
amounts  to  $784,000,000,  or  about  one-third  of  the  cost  of  the 
one  at  Babylon.  But  that  would  build  two  Panama  Canals. 

Bridge.  —  Some  would  have  us  believe  that  the  Lagang 
bridge  in  China  is  the  greatest  work  ever  erected  by  man,  but 
they  have  evidently  not  heard  of  Babylon. 

This  bridge  was  built  exclusively  by  Chinese  engineers,  who 
really  seem  to  know  something  after  all.  It  is  nearly  6  miles 
long,  and  has  300  stone  arches  70  feet  high.  It  was  finished 
in  1885. 

GREAT  EGYPT 

Bigness.  —  Those  who  think  we  are  making  wonderful 
progress  in  large  scale  work  might  advantageously  look  back 
at  Old  Egypt. 

Away  back  about  4,500  years  ago  they  built  the  great 
pyramid,  and  if  there  is  a  larger  structure  on  earth  it  has 


352    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

not  yet  been  heard  of,  for,  unlike  the  wall  of  Babylon,  this  mass 
still  stands. 

The  engineers  of  our  day  could  not  handle  the  blocks  of 
stone  that  the  Egyptians  tossed  around.  One  of  them  weighed 
900  tons. 

None  of  the  stones  of  the  pyramid  was  less  than  30  feet 
long,  and  from  2  to  5  thick.  The  great  mass  contains  85,000,- 
000  cubic  feet.  At  20  cents  a  foot  for  concrete  that  would  be 
$17,000,000,  but  concrete  was  not  used. 

The  road  to  bring  down  the  great  blocks  was  three-fourths 
of  a  mile  long,  of  polished  stone,  and  carved  figures  relieved 
the  monotony.  This  road  took  10  years  to  build.  The  pyra- 
mid took  about  twice  as  long.  It  covers  13  acres,  and 
is  481  feet  high.  On  top  the  platform  is  only  ten  feet 
square. 

For  20  years  100,000  men  worked  on  it.  On  our  basis  of 
wages  for  stonecutters  and  laborers  we  might  average  $600 
per  year  for  each.  The  wage  bill  is  too  large  to  set  down. 
Hoisting  blocks  30  feet  long  by  5  feet  thick,  nearly  500  feet 
in  the  air  is  no  trifle.  Let  us  guess  $3  per  cubic  foot,  and 
"  call  it  square  "  at  $255,000,000  in  granite,  but  conclude  to 
try  mass  concrete  for  the  one  we  build,  •  on  the  cost  plus 
system. 

This  is  the  Great  Pyramid,  but  there  are  about  70  others. 
The  pyramid  business  seems  to  have  been  slightly  overdone 
in  the  Nile  country.  They  were  used  as  tombs.  The  living 
wretches  had  to  pass  their  lives  in  hovels,  and  dead  tyrants 
got  85,000,000  cubic  feet  of  granite  piled  above  their  bones. 
Our  modern  plutocrats  and  their  architects  need  not  try  to 
astonish  us  with  their  "  mausoleums."  That  business  merely 
makes  us  yawn.  If  a  Beaux-Arts  architect  has  no  other  work 
for  his  brains  than  build  such  useless  structures  he  would 
have  been  a  better  American  citizen  if  he  had  stayed  in 
America  and  hoed  potatoes. 

The  American  orator  was  over  in  Europe,  and  the  sexton 
was  telling  him  of  the  tomb  of  some  dead  hero,  and  describing 
how  many  tons  of  granite  and  marble  were  in  it.  The  orator 
said  solemnly,  "  Well,  you've  got  him  safe  enough.  If  he 
escapes  cable  me  at  my  expense."  The  old  tyrants  are  safe 
enough  under  their  pyramids  also. 

The  Sphinx.  —  As  a  carving  contract,  this  figure  seems  to 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     353 

hold  the  record.  It  is  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  It  has  the 
body  of  a  lion.  From  the  platform  on  which  this  fine  animal 
lies  to  the  top  of  the  head  is  100  feet;  it  is  146  feet  long,  and 
measures  34  feet  across  the  shoulders.  From  the  top  of  the 
head  to  the  chin  is  more  than  28  feet.  A  lion  of  even  half 
that  size  would  send  us  all  to  Phoenix,  Arizona,  to  look 
at  it. 

Recessional.  —  When  we  want  a  beamed  ceiling  we  nail  up 
the  beams,  but  the  Egyptians  cut  temples  out  of  the  solid 
rock,  and  paneled  all  the  ceilings  with  stone  beams.  They, 
especially,  had  a  perfect  delirium  of  heavy  building. 

Karnac  had  an  avenue  2  miles  long,  bordered  with  scores 
of  great  sphinxes.  Ten  other  avenues  have  been  discovered. 
The  greatest  masonry  on  earth  is  found  there,  mostly  in  ruins. 

Thebes  had  the  block  of  stone  weighing  900  tons,  and  it  was 
all  polished  to  a  finish.  Who  wants  the  contract  for  hoisting 
that  one? 

The  .largest  block  of  marble  ever  quarried  in  the  United 
States  measured  27'  2"  x  4'  4"  x  4'  3".  This  is  a  total  of 
500^  cubic  feet,  weighing  50  tons.  It  was  for  a  column  of 
the  State  Savings  Bank,  Detroit,  and  was  handled  by  Nor- 
cross  Brothers  Co.  It  would  have  been  looked  upon  as  a  toy 
back  in  the  Nile  country  more  than  4,000  years  ago.  They 
took  obelisks,  columns,  and  pillars  of  all  kinds  and  sizes,  and 
scattered  them  around  their  temples  as  we  do  ordinary  cast 
iron  columns. 

Big-  Room.  —  The  main  hall  in  the  Vatican  Library  is  a  fine 
one,  52'  x  240',  but  one  of  the  temples  at  Karnac  had  an 
apartment  170  x  340.  There  were  columns  in  it  12  feet  in 
diameter,  and  62  feet  high,  with  capitals  measuring  22  feet 
across.  Ask  your  stonecutter  how  much  he  wants  to  cut  and 
set  such  a  column. 

How  would  you  like  to  bring  an  obelisk  weighing  nearly 
300  tons  from  a  quarry  100  miles  away?  And  set  it  high 
above  the  ground  on  its  pedestal? 

City  upon  city  was  filled  with  the  wonderful  buildings  of 
the  Egyptians  of  the  old  days  thousands  of  years  ago.  At  our 
best,  we  are  far  behind  the  ancient  builders  so  far  as  size 
and  weight  and  surface  go.  We  are  more  sensible,  however, 
for  we  build  cottages  instead  of  palaces,  and  schools  instead 
of  Babylonian  walls  and  Egyptian  pyramids. 


354    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE 

For  splendid  finish,  however,  the  best  of  all  the  temples 
was  the  one  built  by  the  wise-foolish  king.  It  was  roofed 
with  gold  tiles,  and  they  were  nailed  on  with  gold  nails.  A 
modern  roofer  from  Cincinnati  could  not  be  trusted  on  that 
work.  He  would  come  out  a  millionaire. 

The  floors,  doors,  and  everything  on  the  inside  was  covered 
with  gold.  Much  fuss  was  made  the  other  year  when  one 
childish  millionaire  used  gold  hinges  for  a  door,  and  another 
covered  his  with  gold  leaf.  They  are  only  poor  little  "  pikers  " 
after  all,  and  need  not  try  to  astonish  us,  for  wre  have  heard 
of  Solomon,  in  all  his  golden  glory. 

At  the  door  of  the  porch  there  were  two  bronze  columns 
33  feet  high  and  7  feet  in  diameter.  Which  founder  would 
care  to  make  them  in  one  piece  to-day? 

Someone  has  computed  the  wage  bill  on  this  temple  if  done 
on  modern  American  lines.  It  runs  to  $275,000,000.  Yet  the 
building  was  not  very  large.  It  was  only  110x36x55  high. 
And  all  the  stones  came  prepared  to  go  to  their  place  as 
marked. 

ST.  PETER'S 

Rome  has  the  largest  of  the  temples  in  our  day.  It  is 
612x446.  The  dome  is  448  feet  above  the  pavement;  the 
cupola,  193  feet  in  diameter.  It  is  said  to  have  cost  $70,000- 
000.  Probably  if  built  in  the  United  States  to-day  it  would 
foot  up  $250,000,000.  Who  wants  the  contract? 

THE  TAJ  MAHAL 

The  Egyptian  pyramids  were  the  biggest  of  the  tombs,  but 
no  one  would  call  them  beautiful.  They  were  massive — or 
rather  they  are  massive,  for  they  are  still  there  to  make  us 
wonder. 

But  of  all  the  tombs  that  were  ever  built  the  Taj  Mahal, 
at  Agra,  in  India,  is  the  most  beautiful.  There  are  respectable 
looking  ones  for  Napoleon  at  Paris,  and  for  Grant  at  New 
York,  but  they  would  only  be  lodge  gates  for  the  Taj. 

Base.  —  First  of  all  comes  a  terrace  of  pink  sandstone  330 
feet  wide  by  960  long.  Before  you  go  further  count  how  many 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     355 

of  your  city  lots  that  would  cover.  One  side  of  this  slopes 
into  the  waters  of  a  beautiful  lake,  and  the  other  side  into  the 
gardens  of  the  gods  this  time,  and  not  like  the  ones  in 
Colorado. 

Springing  from  this  terrace  is  a  square  of  white  marble 
285  feet  on  the  side,  and  15  feet  high.  On  each  corner  is  a 
cupolaed  minaret  that  rises  lightly  to  a  height  of  150  feet. 
In  the  center  of  that  is  the  mausoleum  itself  in  octagon  form 
with  sides  of  120  feet,  crowned  with  terraced  roof  and  domes 
and  minarets. 

Ornament.  —  The  tracery  fairly  covers  the  walls,  and  it  is  as 
fine  as  lace.  Flowers,  fruit,  birds,  and  all  manner  of  beautiful 
figures  are  there  to  make  the  world  marvel.  Texts  from  the 
Koran  are  written  with  precious  stones,  such  as  diamonds, 
lapis  lazuli,  emeralds,  and  the  rest  of  them.  The  tomb  was 
built  in  honor  of  the  dead  sultana.  In  the  midst  of  wild 
luxury  like  this  on  one  side  the  poor  wretches  worked  for 
ten  cents  a  day,  and  lived  in  hovels. 

Big  Job.  —  It  took  20,000  men  22  years  to  build  it,  and  they 
never  had  to  "  lay  off."  Our  carvers  who  covered  every  foot 
of  such  a  structure  with  lace  carving  would  have  to  be  well 
paid,  and  so  would  the  stonecutters  and  setters.  Let  us  call 
the  wage  bill  for  the  one  we  will  build  in  the  United  States 
$300,000,000. 

Finis.  —  The  human  race  should  have  said  FINIS  to  the 
tomb  building  industry  after  the  Great  Pyramid,  and  The 
Taj.  The  limit  had  been  reached  both  as  to  size  and  beauty. 
And,  besides,  what  is  the  use  anyway?  It  is  not  worth  while 
going  to  the  architectural  schools  if  the  students  are  going 
to  waste  their  time  on  "  mausoleums."  All  over  the  ancient 
world  that  business  was  worked  to  a  frazzle — worked  too 
much  for  little  "  pikers "  of  multi-millionaires  and  their 
architects  ever  to  make  it  again  respectable. 

ELLOBA 

Have  you  ever  heard  of  the  place  where  they  excavated  for 
miles  into  the  rock,  and  carved  their  pillars,  columns,  beams, 
and  entablatures  out  of  the  solid?  Whenever  they  wanted 
light  and  air  they  threw  up  a  shaft  and  carved  it  to  the  king's 
taste. 


356    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

India  is  full  of  temples  and  building  glory.  Compared  with 
the  men  there  we  are  only  baby  builders. 

Chaldea,  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  India — thousands  of 
years  ago  their  wonderful  structures  arose.  Greece  came  later 
on,  and  had  the  most  refined  revel  of  them  all. 

If  men  and  women  could  only  save  themselves  by  buildings 
and  books,  once  more  we  may  say,  their  calling  and  election 
were  sure. 

THE   ROMANS 

The  Romans  simply  had  to  repeat  the  story.  They  did  not 
know  any  better.  They  put  their  trust  in  a  whirl  of  material- 
ism, and  might  as  well  have  put  batter  for  brains. 

Their  Colosseum  held  90,000  persons  and  measured  622  x  528. 
We  have  a  "  Colosseum  "  in  Omaha  that  is  made  of  studs  and 
boards.  The  walls  are  not  200  feet  high  like  those  of  the 
Roman  one,  but  they  are  like  them  in  having  no  mortar  in 
the  joints. 

Bridges,  aqueducts,  roads,  arches, — the  power  of  Rome  cov- 
ered the  earth,  and  her  builders  could  not  be  equaled.  But 
the  end  was  even  as  the  others.  FINIS. 

Big  Bells  and  Buddhas.  —  About  the  year  1252  a  Buddha 
was  cast  in  Japan.  It  is  nearly  50  feet  high,  and  100  in 
circumference.  The  face  is  8  feet  6  inches  long — the  longest 
face  in  the  world — and  the  nose  3  feet  9  inches,  which  is  the 
length  of  the  one  on  the  Statue  of  Liberty,  New  York. 

There  was  a  bell  cast  in  Moscow  in  1733.  It  was  21  feet 
high,  21  in  diameter,  and  weighed  216  tons. 

There  is  another  in  Burma  weighing  130  tons;  also  a  Big, 
Big  one  in  the  city  hall,  New  York,  that  weighs  12%  tons. 

CENTRAL    AMERICA 

Fifty  or  sixty  cities  have  been  discovered  in  this  region,  and 
they  have  pyramids,  temples,  and  palaces  enough  to  satisfy 
any  reasonable  human.  The  pyramids  are  small  as  compared 
with  the  old  timers  near  the  Nile.  But  one  of  them  measures 
280  feet  square,  and  the  base  is  60  feet  high.  The  temple 
proper  comes  on  top.  It  would  make  a  fairly  large  contract 
for  a  modern  construction  company. 

All  the  way  down  to  Peru  they  built  aqueducts,   temples, 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK    357 

tunnels,  roads,  and  everything  that  could  be  constructed  of 
masonry. 

In  Cuzco,  Peru,  they  had  a  building  with  walls  of  marble, 
green  stone,  and  porphyry  elegantly  carved,  and  sculptured, 
and  lined  with  gold  inside.  On  the  sides  were  thrones  of 
gold.  In  the  ornamentation  were  jewels  to  the  value  of  $200,- 
000,000.  Once  more  we  have  to  repeat  that  the  little  New 
York  "  pikers  ''  might  just  as  well  stop  trying  to  dazzle  us. 

I  think  it  is  Prescott  who  tells  us  that  down  there  in  the 
midst  of  wonderful  buildings  they  did  not  know  enough  to 
make  a  tenon  and  a  mortise.  The  thought  had  never  come  to 
them.  We  must  remember  that  for  untold  centuries  men  did 
not  know  how  to  build  an  arch. 

MODERN   GLORIES 

In  comparatively  modern  times  we  have  had  the  Alhambra, 
St.  Sophia's,  St.  Peter's,  and  cathedrals  without  end. 

The  Alhambra  is  said  to  be  the  finest  palace  that  man  ever 
built,  but  you  can  never  tell.  Babylon  had  a  few,  also  Nineveh, 
and  quite  a  number  of  other  cities.  Nevertheless,  this  Sara- 
cenic beauty  sat  in  the  midst  of  an  earthly  paradise,  and  was 
not  out  of  place,  but  matched  it  well. 

The  Saracens  were  splendid  and  graceful  builders.  In 
Cordova  they  filled  one  great  hall  with  a  forest  of  1,000 
columns  made  of  alabaster,  marble,  porphyry,  and  jasper. 

One  of  the  most  fascinating  periods  of  history  is  that  of  the 
Moorish  occupation  of  Spain.  The  older  generation  of  Amer- 
icans seemed  to  be  particularly  interested  in  it.  Irving,  Long- 
fellow, Lowell,  and  others  listened  to  the  mule  bells  on  the 
old  hills. 

The  Moors  swept  everything  before  them  until  they  met 
Charles  the  Hammer  at  Tours.  He  hammered  them  for  seven 
long  days,  hammer  and  tongs,  and  finally  they  had  to  give 
in,  and  from  that  time  on  the  contractors  were  to  build 
cathedrals  all  over  Western  Europe  instead  of  mosques. 

They  built  them;  and  in  some  ways  they  are  the  most 
beautiful  structures  ever  erected  by  man.  The  glories  of  the 
great  white  marble  cathedral  at  Milan,  says  one  writer,  can 
never  be  excelled.  There  are  nearly  5,000  marble  statues  on 
its  walls  and  towers.  Who  wants  such  a  contract? 


358    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

At  Ravenna  there  is  said  to  be  a  cupola  38  feet  in  diameter 
and  15  thick.  This  is  far  below  the  stones  the  Ancients  used 
to  swing  in  the  air,  but  is  a  good-sized  block  nevertheless. 
Who  wants  to  place  such  another  on  top  of  a  dome? 

Leaning  Work.  —  Who  would  want  to  erect  the  leaning 
tower  of  Saragossa?  Or  the  still  greater  marvel  at  Pisa,  180 
feet  high  and  14  out  of  plumb,  and  give  a  bond  that  it  would 
stand  for  six  centuries?  Is  the  Caucasian  played  out?  Is  our 
civilization  a  failure  ? 

Not  so  long,  say  the  moderns,  as  we  can  build  700  feet  high, 
and  look  at  the  flying  machines  far  above  us.  Not  so  long 
as  iron  shall  endure,  said  Gibbon,  whose  historical  studies 
left  him  blind  to  the  fact  that  things  that  can  be  weighed 
and  measured  never  save  a  civilization. 

But  we  are  still  building  some  good-sized  structures  from 
the  modern  standpoint.  Let  us  finish  by  glancing  at  one  and 
reading  a  description  of  the  other  from  the  New  York  World. 

The  Grand  Opera  House,  Paris,  required  30,000  drawings, 
and  14  years  to  build.  It  has  what  is  probably  the  most 
beautiful  stairway  in  our  modern  world.  The  steps  are  of 
white  marble,  the  balusters  of  alabaster,  the  handrail  of 
African  onyx.  There  are  24  colored  marble  columns  rising  to 
the  height  of  the  third  floor.  It  cost  $7,000,000.  Probably, 
considering  the  difference  in  wages  at  the  time  it  was  built, 
and  in  Paris,  and  what  they  are  now  in  our  large  cities,  the 
cost  might  be  here  $12,000,000. 

Now  we  can  read  about  the  "  Sky-Piercer." 

ONE  OF  NEW  YORK'S  SKYSCRAPERS 


It  is  Thirty-One   Stories  High   and  Cost 
$8,000,000. 


One  of  New  York's  finest  skyscrapers  casts  its  shadow 
over  the  Battery. 

Towering  31  stories  above  the  ground,  it  contains  11,- 
000,000  cubic  feet  with  a  rentable  area  of  550,000  square 
feet.  It  has  10  miles  of  plumbing,  20  miles  of  steam 
pipe,  65  miles  of  conduits  and  wiring,  and  3/000  electric 
fixtures. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     359 

From  curb  to  roof  it  measures  416  feet. 

In  building  it  were  used  14,000  tons  of  structural  steel, 
7,500,000  common  bricks,  900,000  face  bricks,  45,000  barrels 
of  cement,  535,000  square  feet  of  floor  arches,  266,000  cubic 
feet  of  cinder  fill,  125,000  square  feet  of  girder  covering, 
450,000  square  feet  of  partition  tile,  120,000  square  feet  of 
column  covering,  210,000  square  feet  of  wall  furring,  5,000 
cubic  yards  of  caissons,  17,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  excavation, 
3,150  cubic  feet  of  granite,  20,000  cubic  feet  of  Indiana  lime- 
stone, 3,000  tons  of  ornamental  terra  cotta,  65,000  square  feet 
of  wire  lath,  85,000  square  yards  of  plaster,  400,000  lineal 
feet  of  spruce  sleepers,  800,000  feet  of  comb  grain  yellow 
pine  flooring,  2,300  windows,  60,000  square  feet  of  glass,  3,000 
doors,  280,000  pounds  of  window  weights,  30,000  feet  of  copper 
chain,  450,000  feet  of  grounds,  80,000  feet  of  picture  mold, 
and  80,000  feet  of  base. 

Cinders  required  for  floor  arches  and  between  sleepers  of 
the  floors  fill  500,000  cubic  feet— approximately  25,000,000 
pounds.  It  represents  the  consumption  of  125,000  tons  of  coal, 
sufficient  to  develop  55,000,000  horsepower  hours  of  energy. 

There  are  2,100  horsepower  in  boilers,  2,000  horsepower 
in  engines,  1,200  kilowatts  in  generator  capacity,  65,000  square 
feet  of  radiator  surface,  190,000  candlepower  in  electric  lights. 

The  structure  is  an  addition  to  the  25-story  Whitehall 
building,  fronts  307.2%  feet  on  Washington  Street,  and  160.8 
on  Battery  Place,  covering  51,515  square  feet,  or  20  city  lots. 

Chicago  used  to  lead  in  high  buildings,  but  New  York  now 
has  that  honor.  The  Singer  and  the  Metropolitan  soar  far 
above  the  Whitehall,  and  the  Woolworth  is  to  be  the  highest  in 
the  world,  for  the  Eiffel  Tower  is  not  used  as  a  building. 

The  Woolworth  will  reach  750  feet  up  from  the  sidewalk, 
and  go  130  feet  below  for  foundations.  The  main  structure 
will  be  27  stories,  and  the  tower  24.  There  will  be  13,000,000 
cubic  feet  in  the  structure.  The  tower  light  will  be  seen  for 
fifty  miles.  The  cost  will  be  about  $12,000,000.  The  owner 
started  the  five  and  ten-cent  stores.  Many  nickels  make  a 
muckle. 

The  design  is  beautiful,  and  has  been  copyrighted — probably 
lest  any  of  us  should  spend  $12,000,000  in  duplicating  the 
building. 

After  all,  we  can  at  least  build  higher  than  the  ancients. 


CHAPTER  VII 
MISCELLANEOUS 

(1)     THE    METRIC    SYSTEM 

Who  Use  It.  —  With  the  exception  of  the  English-speaking 
nations  and  Russia,  practically  all  civilized  countries  use 
this  system  of  weights  and  measures.  Our  system  serves 
140,000,000  people;  the  metric,  500,000,000.  It  was  legalized 
in  the  United  States  in  1886,  and  in  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1897. 

The  dollars  and  cents  system  of  this  country  is  much  simpler 
than  the  old  one  of  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence,  because  it  is 
based  on  decimals.  The  other  is  based  on  custom.  The  Metric 
is  a  decimal  system  also. 

Education.  —  It  is  calculated  that  each  school  pupil  loses  a 
year  by  having  to  grub  among  the  weights  and  measures  that 
we  have  as  compared  with  the  time  that  would  be  required 
for  the  Metric  system.  Think  what  this  means  for  the  mil- 
lions now  at  school,  and  the  greater  millions  yet  to  come. 

The  Objectors.  —  The  manufacturers  who  have  their  ma- 
chines, scales,  and  all  their  equipment  based  on  the  present 
system  are  not  to  be  too  much  blamed  because  they  object 
to  change,  but  other  nations  have  made  the  leap,  and  found 
that  it  paid  in  the  long  run.  Our  technical  books  would  all 
have  to  be  re-written,  and  that  would  be  the  salvation  of 
some  of  them  that  are  now  gray-haired. 

Latin  Trade.  —  All  the  countries  south  of  us  use  this  sys- 
tem. It  is  really  a  Latin  triumph.  It  was  introduced  by 
France  in  1801.  Germany  adopted  it  about  1877,  and  has 
reaped  a  rich  reward  with  her  South  American  trade.  Her 
standards  require  no  changing  to  suit  the  customers  of  that 
great  continent. 

Tables.  —  Enough  of  the  system  is  presented  here  for  prac- 
tical use.  The  friends  of  the  metric  reform  should  not  go 

360 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     361 

into  details  that  are  not  required,  but  should  keep  the  figures 
down  to  the  simplest  and  smallest  limits. 

In  the  table  of  "  Precise  Equivalents "  the  denominations 
in  everyday  use  are  presented.  In  the  first  column  the  figures 
are  given  sufficiently  close  for  practical  use;  in  the  second 
they  are  more  exact. 

TABLES  OF  THE  SYSTEM 

Length.  —  The  denominations  in  practical  use  are  milli- 
metres (mm.),  centimetres  (cm.),  metres  (m.),  and  kilo- 
metres (km.). 

10  mm.  —  1  cm.;  100  cm.  r=  1  m.;  1,000  m.  =  km.  Note. — 
A  decimetre  is  10  cm. 

Weight. — The  denominations  in  use  are  grams  (g. ),  kilos 
( kg. ) ,  and  tons  ( metric  tons ) . 

1,000  g.  =  1  kg.;   1,000  kg.  =  1  metric  ton. 

Capacity.  —  The  denominations  in  use  are  cubic  centimetres 
(c.  c. )  and  litres  (1.). 

1,000  c.  c.  =  1  1. 

Relation  of  capacity  and  weight  to  length:  A  cubic  deci- 
metre is  a  litre,  and  a  litre  of  water  weighs  a  kilo. 

• 

APPROXIMATE   EQUIVALENTS 

A  metre  is  about  a  yard;  a  kilo  is  about  2  pounds;  a  litre 
is  about  a  quart;  a  centimetre  is  about  £  inch;  a  metric 
ton  is  about  same  as  a  ton;  a  kilometre  is  about  %  mile;  a 
cubic  centimetre  is  about  a  thimbleful ;  a  nickel  weighs  about 
5  grams. 

PBECISE   EQUIVALENTS 

1  acre     —      .40  hectar    4047 

1  bushel    =35  litres    35.24 

1  centimetre =      .39  inch    3937 

1  cubic  centimetre.  .  =      .061  cubic    inch    0610 

1  cubic  foot    =      .028  cubic  metre 0283 

1  cubic  inch   —  16  cubic  cent 16.39 

1  cubic  metre =35  cubic  feet    35.31 

1  cubic  metre —    1.3  cubic  yards    1.308 

1  cubic  yard —     .76  cubic  metre    7645 


362    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 


1  foot  
1  gallon     
1  grain 

.  .  .  =  30          c 

.  .  .  =    3.8       1 
—       065  g 

entimetres     .  . 

30  48 

tres    
ram    
rains    

.  .  .   3.785 
.  .  .     ,0648 
15  43 

1  gram     
1  hectar 

...=15          g 
—    2  5       a 

cres    
lillimetrps 

.  .  .    2.471 
25  40 

1  inch     

.  .  .  —  25          n 

1  kilo     
1  kilometre   

.  .  =    2.2       pounds     
.  .  —      .62     mile    .     . 

.  .  .   2.205 
6214 

1  litre    
1  litre    
1  metre    .    ... 

..  =      .91     q 
..==1,1        q 

—    33       f  < 

uart  (  dry  )    

.  .  .     .9081 

uarts   (liquid) 

ilometres     
ich    
rams     
rams   
tres    
tre    .  :  
ilo     
tres    
tre    
juare  inch  
juare  metre    
juare  centimetres    . 
juare  yards    
juare  feet 

.  .  .    1.057 
.  .  .    3.281 
.  .  .    1.609 
.  .  .     .0394 
.  ..28.35 
...31.10 
.  .  .    8.809 
.  .  .     .4732 
.  .  .     .4536 
...    1.101 
.  .  .     .9464 
.  .  .     .1550 
...     .0929 
.  .  .    6.452 
.  .  .    1.196 
.  ..10.76 
...     .8361 
.  .  .      .9072 
.  ..    1.017 
.  .  .    1.102 
9842 

1  mile    

.  .  =    1.6       k 
.  .  —     .039  ii 
's)=28          g 
-.=31          g 
.  .  =    8.8       li 
.  .  =      .47    li 
.  .  =      .45     k 
..  =    1.1       li 
.  .  .  =      .95    li 
re.  =      .15     s< 
.  .  =      .093  s< 
.  .  =    6.5       S( 
.  .  =    1.2       s< 

..=11              S( 

.  .  =      .84     sc 
..=      .91     n 
..  =    1          ir 
.  .  =    1.1       t( 
.  .  =      .98     tc 
—       91      m 

1  millimetre   .... 
1  ounce    (avoirdup 
1  ounce  (Troy)    . 
1  peck    
1  pint    
1  pound     
1  quart   (dry)    .  . 
1  quart   (liquid) 
1  square  centimet 
1  square  foot   .... 
1  square  inch  .  .  . 
1  square  metre    . 
1  square  metre    . 
1  square  yard    .  . 
1  ton   (2,000  Ibs.) 
1  ton  (2,240  Ibs.) 
1  ton    (metric)     .  . 
1  ton    (  metric  )     .  . 
1  yard 

uare  metre  
tetric  ton    
tetric  ton    
m    (2,000  Ibs.)    .  .  . 
>n  (2,240  Ibs.) 

etre  

*.  .  .     9144 

MEASUEES  OF  LENGTHS 

Metric    Denominations    and    Values 

Equivalents  in  Denominations  in  Use 

10,000  metres. 
1,000  metres. 
100  metres. 
10  metres. 
1  metre. 
1-10  of  a  metre. 
1-100  of  a  metre. 
-1000  of  a  metre. 

6.2137    miles. 
0.62137  mile,    or    3,280 
328             feet    1    inch. 
393.7          inches. 
39.37        inches. 
3.937      inches. 
0.3937    inch. 
0.0394    inch. 

ft.    10   in. 

Kilometre     

Dekametre     
Metre 

Decimetre    

Millimeter                        1 

CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     363 


MEASURES    OF    SURFACE 


Metric   Denominations   and   Values 

Equivalents  in  Denominations  in  Use 

Hectare 

10,000  square  metres. 

2.471  acres. 
119.6      square  yards. 
1,550         square  inches. 

Are     

100  square  metres. 

Centare    

1  square  metre. 

MEASURES    OF  CAPACITY 


Metric  Denominations  and  Values        ,    Equivalents  in  Denominations  in  Use 


Names 

Num- 
ber of 
Litres 

Cu.  Meas. 

Dry  Meas. 

Liquid 
or  Wine 
Measure 

Kilolitre    or 
stere      
Hectolitre     . 
Dekalitre 

1-000 
100 
10 

1  cu.  metre  
1-10  of  a  cu.  metre 
10  cu.  deci  

1.308  cu.  yds  
2  bush.&  3.35  pks. 
9.08  quarts  

264.17      gals. 
26.417    gals. 
2.6417  gals. 

Litre 

1 

1  cu    deci  

0  908  quart 

L  0567  qts 

Decilitre  ... 
Centilitre  ... 
Millilitre  ... 

1-10 
1-100 
1-1000 

1-10  of  a  cu.  deci.  . 
10  cu.  centi  
1  cu.  centi  

6.1022  cu.  in  
0.6102  cu.  in  
0.061  cu.  in  

0.845     gill. 
0.338    fld.  oz. 
0.27      fld.  drm. 

WEIGHTS 


Metric  Denominations  and  Values 


Names 

Number 
of 
Grams 

Weight  of  What  Quantitj 
of  Water   at  Maximum 
Density 

Avoirdupois  Weight 

Miller   or  tonneau 
Quintal 

1,000,000 
100  000 

1  cu.  metre  
1  hectolitre 

2204.6        Ibs. 
220  46      Ibs 

10,000 

10  litres  

22  046    Ibs 

1  000 

1  litre 

2  2046  Ibs 

100 

1  decilitre  .  . 

3  5274  oz 

Dekagram     

10 
1 

10  cu.  centimetres  

0.3527  oz. 
15  432    grains 

1-10 

1-10  of  a  cu    centimetre.  . 

1  5432  grains 

Centigram     

1-100 

10  cu.  millimetres  

0.1543  grain 

Milligram    . 

1-1000 

1  cu.  millimetre  

0  0154  grain 

Equivalents  in  Denomi- 
nations in  Use 


"  In  Germany  it  is  becoming  the  practice  to  leave  out  of 
account  all  but  the  principal  measures,  such  as  the  kilometre, 
the  metre,  the  centimetre,  and  the  millimetre;  and  in  measures 
of  weight  the  kilogramme,  the  gramme,  the  centigramme,  and 
the  milligramme;  and  these  are  written  decimally."  For  ex- 
ample, we  should  write  3471.927  metres.  If  we  want  to  know 
how  many  kilometres  that  is  all  we  have  to  do  is  to  move  the 
point  3  figures  to  the  left,  thus  dividing  by  1,000  —  3.471927. 

Contracts.  —  The  British  are  losing  so  many  contracts  for 


364    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

engines,  boilers,  and  machinery  of  all  kinds,  owing  to  retaining 
the  present  system,  that  they  are  between  two  fires.  A  change 
means  expense;  and  the  loss  of  trade  hurts  also. 

Book.  —  A  former  member  of  the  British  Government,  Mr. 
Arnold  Foster,  has  written  a  book  entitled,  "  The  Coming  of 
the  Kilogram,"  Cassell  &  Co.,  New  York,  25  cents.  What  he 
says  applies  to  us  here  also.  In  the  United  Kingdom  the 
Educational  Department  has  made  a  knowledge  of  the  Metric 
System  compulsory. 

We  are  told  that  an  ideal  system  should  be,  "  Uniform, 
accurate,  easily  understood  and  used,  widely  known,  and 
simple  in  calculation." 

"  Measurements  are  now  made  to  the  one-millionth  part  of 
an  inch,  and  quantities  as  small  as  the  ten-thousandth  part 
of  a  grain  are  weighed." 

"  At  one  time  nearly  all  civilized  people  used  the  Roman 
figures,  and  were  accustomed  to  write  LXXXVIII  for  88,  and 
CCCCLIX  for  459;  but  fortunately  the  common  sense  of  the 
world  got  rid  of  the  Roman  figures  and  adopted  the  Arabic 
ones  in  their  stead." 

How  would  you  like  to  multiply  LXXXVIII  by  CCCCLIX? 
Yet  the  Roman  architects  used  that  system. 

If  Germany,  Turkey,  and  all  the  other  nations  changed,  why 
can  we  not?  "There  is  really  only  one  way  (of  changing), 
and  that  is  to  fix  on  one  set  of  weights  and  measures  by  law," 
and  forbid  the  use  of  any  others.  "  No  German  would  now 
think  of  going  back  to  the  old  German  weights  and  measures, 
which  were  stupid  and  complicated." 

"  One  after  another  the  different  civilized  nations  of  the 
world  have  made  up  their  minds  to  get  rid  of  the  bad,  com- 
plicated weights  and  measures,  and  adopt  a  new  system.  In 
every  single  case,  after  carefully  considering  all  that  could 
be  said  on  the  point,  they  have  decided  to  use  the  Metric 
System." 

"  It  is  an  acknowledged  fact  that  calculations  in  the  Metric 
System  necessitate  less  than  one-half  the  number  of  figures 
required  by  the  present  system." 

Mr.  Balfour,  the  leader  of  the  British  Conservatives,  said: 
"  There  can  be  no  doubt,  I  think,  whatever,  that  the  judgment 
of  the  whole  civilized  world,  not  excluding  the  countries 
which  still  adhere  to  the  antiquated  system  under  which  we 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     365 

suffer,  has  long  decided  that  the  Metric  System  is  the  only 
rational  system." 

With  the  adoption  of  this  system  and  a  reformed  spelling  two 
wasted  years  would  be  saved  to  all  English-speaking  children. 

For  the  United  States  there  is  a  free  pamphlet  published 
by  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  entitled,  "  The 
International  System  of  Weights  and  Measures."  It  is  meant 
to  save  the  Department  from  making  special  answers  on  this 
interesting  reform. 

There  is  first  the  legalizing  in  1866. 

Post-Office. — The  Postmaster-General  is  to  furnish  certain 
post-offices  with  balances  to  weigh  the  mails. 

Coinage.  —  The  weights  and  accounts  are  now  given  in  the 
Metric  System. 

Electric  Work.  —  The  legal  units  of  electrical  measures 
in  the  United  States  are  based  on  the  Metric  System  (1894). 

Medical.  —  "  The  Metric  System  shall  hereafter  be  employed 
in  the  medical  department  of  the  Navy."  April  15,  1878.  And 
also  in  the  War  Department,  1894. 

Public  Health  and  Marine  Hospital.  —  For  .certain  purposes, 
November  21,  1902. 

Beyond.  —  In  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines  the  system  is 
obligatory. 

THE  HEIGHT    OF   BUILDINGS 

The  "  Sky-Piercer "  is  now  "  in  our  midst."  It  runs  up 
from  600  to  750  feet,  with  more  than  50  stories;  and  the  latest 
one  proposed  is  set  at  1,200,  or  higher  than  the  Eiffel  tower. 

The  Singer  Building  has  41  stories,  a  capacity  of  6,000 
people,  a  tower  that  weighs  23,000  tons,  and  a  weight  of 
1,600  tons  on  one  column. 

The  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Company  has  another  of 
the  same  high  type.  They  are  to  the  ordinary  sky-scraper 
what  the  Dreadnaughts  are  to  the  former  type  of  battleship. 

Will  1,200  feet  be  the  limit?  We  used  to  think  the  20-story 
Masonic  Temple  of  Chicago  about  the  highest  building  that 
would  ever  be  erected. 

Is  it  really  necessary  to  rise  so  high  in  the  air?  Does  it 
pay?  Is  there  not  too  much  space  lost  by  the  elevators? 

There  is  an  excellent  article  on  the  subject  of  the  Piercers 
in  The  Saturday  Evening  Post,  for  November  13,  1909.  A 


366    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

few  extracts  will  be  of  value,  for  builders  should  stand  on  the 
side  of  the  Piercer  if  it  is  desirable,  or  change  their  codes 
to  forbid  it  if  it  is  not. 

When  we  read  the  following  it  is  clear  that  every  owner 
cannot  put  up  a  Piercer  even  if  he  has  the  money:  "  If  Man- 
hattan Island,  from  Fourteenth  Street  to  the  Battery,  were 
entirely  occupied  by  buildings  20  stories  high,  and  all  the 
offices  were  occupied  by  an  average  working  force,  it  would, 
in  the  morning  and  evening,  require  7  times  the  present  street 
area  to  allow  all  of  them  to  reach  and  leave  their  offices 
promptly." 

They  would  have  to  get  7-deck  streets,  or  make  them  wider. 
"As  a  rule,  one  building  of  14  stories  occupying  one-fourth 
of  a  square,  and  6-story  buildings  over  the  remaining  three- 
fourths,  will  give  ample  accommodation  to  all  the  people  who 
will  transact  business  Avithin  that  square." 

"  If  builders  in  lower  New  York  had  limited  themselves  to 
structures  not  over  15  stories  high,  business  in  that  city,  so 
far  as  it  relates  to  rental  and  management  of  office-buildings, 
would  be  in  better  shape  than  it  actually  is  at  the  present 
time." 

The  writer  of  the  article  thinks  that  just  as  the  Tower  of 
Babel  was  a  mistake  in  the  sky-piercing  line,  so  the  present 
structures  also  are.  At  the  time  the  article  was  written  there 
were  1,815  vacant  offices  in  New  York — about  10  acres  of 
space  without  tenants. 

Cost.  —  This  mounts  up  in  a  discouraging  way  as  >ve  get 
near  the  stars.  The  cost  per  rentable  square  foot,  not  the  con- 
structive cost,  is  put  on  a  high  building  at  $10  for  the  ground 
floor  and  basement  combined,  $5.25  for  the  second  floor,  $5.75 
for  the  third,  $6.30  for  the  fourth,  and  $123.75  for  the  sixty- 
second. 

Another  building  is  detailed  for  cost  by  Mr.  Beach,  the 
writer,  as  follows: 

"  Following  is  the  method  by  which  the  ground  value  may 
be  determined  from  the  rental  revenue,  provided  the  building 
is  of  proper  size  for  the  ground  upon  which  it  stands. 

"  This  hypothetical  building  is  20  stories  high  and  occupies 
the  same  area  on  lower  Broadway  as  that  upon  which  the 
62-story  building  previously  mentioned  was  to  stand — 49,250 
square  feet. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     367 

"  Although  such  is  seldom  the  case,  it  will  be  assumed  that 
the  earnings  of  the  basement  will  equal  6  per  cent,  of  its  cost. 
The  construction  cost  of  the  ground  floor  is  $20  per  rentable 
square  foot;  the  average  rental  per  rentable  square  foot  is 
$10.  Deducting  the  operating  charges  and  the  interest  on  the 
cost  of  the  building  from  this  amount,  we  find  the  net  revenue 
as  income  to  the  ground  value  would  be  $6.95  per  rentable 
square  foot  of  building  space.  The  ratio  of  rentable  area  in 
the  building  to  the  total  ground  area  is  60  per  cent.,  giving, 
therefore,  to  1  square  foot  of  ground  a  rental  value  of  60  per 
cent,  of  $6.95,  which  is  $4.17,  and  a  total  value  per  square  foot 
of  ground  of  $69.50,  based  upon  the  earnings  of  the  first  floor. 

"  The  construction  cost  per  rentable  square  foot  of  the  second 
story  will  be  $18,  the  average  rental  revenue  per  square  foot 
will  be  $8,  the  net  revenue  as  income  to  the  ground  will  be 
$5.37,  and  the  net  revenue  to  1  square  foot  of  ground  will  be, 
estimating  the  ratio  of  rental  area  to  total  ground  area  at 
50  per  cent.,  $2.68,  giving  a  ground  value  of  $44.50,  based  on 
the  earnings  from  the  second  floor. 

"  Assuming  that  the  construction  cost  per  rentable  square 
foot  of  the  18  upper  stories  will  be  $14 — which  is  not  exact, 
as  every  floor  above  the  second  costs  more  than  the  floor 
immediately  beneath — and  estimating  the  average  income  per 
rentable  square  foot  at  $2.50,  and  the  ratio  of  rentable  to 
ground  area  at  45  per  cent.,  we  haye  a  net  revenue  to  1  square 
foot  of  ground  of  42  cents,  or  a  ground  value  per  rentable 
square  foot  of  $7  from  all  of  the  upper  eighteen  floors.  This 
gives  a  ground  value  of  $240  per  square  foot,  or  $11,820,000 
for  that  tract  of  ground." 

Elevator  Service.  —  Here  we  come  to  another  trouble  with 
the  high  building  that  makes  us  think  of  those  owners  who  al- 
ways maintain  that  the  lower  floors  are  the  ones  that  really  pay. 

"  For  example,  in  a  building  12  stories  high  the  cost  of 
elevator  service  is,  per  square  foot,  up  to  the  tenth  or  twelfth 
floor,  about  12  cents  per  annum,  while  it  is  not  over  7  cents 
to  the  fourth  floor." 

New  York  and  Philadelphia  have  no  limit  to  height;  Chicago 
allows  260  feet;  Denver,  125;  Underwriters,  125;  Omaha  has 
no  limit.  At  this  writing  one  sixteen-story  building  is  finished; 
and  another  of  18  stories  is  about  to  be  begun. 

Model  City.  —  In  a  model  code  I  compiled  several  years  ago 


368    CONTRACTORS*  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

for  an  ideal  city  plan  a  limit  of  7  stories  was  set.  This  is 
high  enough  for  any  city,  no  matter  what  its  population. 
But  now  I  should  revise  that  requirement.  Leaving  the  7-story 
height  for  the  city  at  large,  a  good  idea  would  be  to  permit 
any  height  at  certain  points,  such  as  small  parks  near  the 
center  of  the  city,  or  corners  of  streets.  This  would  be  a 
good  advertising  idea.  People  go  hundreds  of  miles  to  see 
the  Singer  Building  and  the  Metropolitan.  Every  city  ought 
to  have  a  Babel  Tower  for  the  neck  stretchers.  It  pays. 

In  an  old  city,  however,  it  would  be  hard  to  establish  a  rule 
that  allowed  one  to  use  his  property  for  a  high  structure,  and 
restrict  another.  The  truth  is  that  all  Western  cities  are 
glad  to  get  sky-scrapers,  and  the  higher  they  are  the  better 
they  like  them. 

But  in  the  long  run  a  7-story  limit  would  pay  everybody 
better. 

The  best  plan,  the  ideal  plan,  would  be  a  limit  to  height  in 
general,  but  an  exception  in  particular  for  the  benefit  of  our 
country  cousins, — and  our  own,  when  we  scrape  in  their  dollars 
over  the  hotel  and  other  counters. 

"  THE  ISLES  OF  GREECE,  THE  ISLES  OF  GREECE  " 

In  a  former  chapter  Mr.  Humphrey  stood  on  the  side  of 
the  reinforced  concrete  work  of  San  Francisco.  The  following 
interview  from  the  Plain-Dealer  shows  that  he  believes  it  is 
possible  to  equal  Greece  if  we  will  only  accept  the  new 
material.  Greece  had  such  fine  buildings  that  this  is  good 
news. 

"Until  the  concrete  era,  Humphrey  says,  Cleveland  will  not 
be  safe,  either  from  fire  or  from  disease.  When  that  time 
comes  Cleveland  will  be  like  a  Grecian  city  of  marble,  bril- 
liantly white.  One  will  speed  past  it  on  trains  running  on 
concrete  beds.  One  will  see  clean,  light-colored  farmhouses 
of  concrete,  artistic  barns,  windmills,  water  towers,  even 
pigpens,  all  white  and  clean. 

"  Mr.  Humphrey  was  picked  out  by  the  United  States 
government  as  being  best  equipped  to  investigate  the  building 
material  problem,  and  has  been  investigating  it  for  years. 
The  government  has  put  a  large  testing  station  at  St.  Louis 
at  his  command. 


CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK     369 

"  '  Cleveland  at  present  is  full  of  fire  traps,'  said  President 
Humphrey,  Thursday.  '  There's  hardly  a  building  here  really 
fireproof.  The  so-called  fireproof  buildings  of  steel  and  terra 
cotta  are  not  fireproof.  They  are  all  liable  to  be  burned. 

"  '  In  case  of  a  big  fire  Clevelanders  down  town  could  escape 
with  their  lives,  for  the  streets  are  wide.  In  New  York, 
however,  a  big  conflagration  would  kill  thousands  in  the  nar- 
row streets.  What  they  should  do  there  is  to  double  deck  the 
streets. 

" '  But  concrete,  cheap  and  beautiful,  will  be  the  building 
material  in  1919.  Everything  will  be  made  of  concrete  then. 
In  1893  there  were  only  about  300,000  barrels  of  cement  manu- 
factured. Last  year  50,000,000  barrels  were  made.  You  can 
imagine  what  the  output  will  be  10  years  hence,  with  lumber 
decreasing  in  quantity  and  increasing  in  price. 

(In  1910  the  total  output  of  Portland  cement  was  64,200,000 
barrels. ) 

"  '  Ten  years  from  now  all  the  sky  scraping  buildings  will 
be  of  concrete,  and  they  will  be  fireproof.  No  matter  what  the 
weight  is  above,  the  concrete  on  the  steel  reinforcements  is 
sufficient  to  protect  the  steel  so  the  building  will  not  be 
injured. 

"  '  Ten  years  from  now  Clevelanders  will  come  down  town 
part  of  the  way  over  concrete  streets  and  part  of  the  way  in 
a  clean  concrete  subway.  They  will  walk  on  concrete  stairs 
and  sidewalks  to  their  offices,  which  will  be  concrete.  Their 
homes  will  be  of  concrete.  Both  office  and  house  rent  will 
be  less,  by  reason  of  the  smaller  original  investment  and  the 
reduced  cost  of  upkeep.  There  will  be  practically  no  insurance 
to  pay.  Houses  will  last  forever,  nearly. 

"  '  The  rent  saved  in  Cleveland  alone  will  probably  mount 
into  the  hundreds  of  thousands  in  a  few  years.  The  taxes 
will  be  less  by  reason  of  the  absence  of  an  expensive  fire 
department.  Just  an  occasional  engine  house  will  be  required 
to  take  care  of  fires  inside  the  buildings. 

" '  Clevelanders  will  ride  out  of  the  city  on  safe  trains. 
They  will  find  the  country  beautified  by  concrete  houses — yes, 
even  to  the  pigpens.  Out  West  even  now  farmers  are  building 
concrete  pigpens,  for  they  find  that  it  is  cheaper;  they  save 
the  feed  that  is  ground  into  a  mud  pen  and  lost. 

" '  If  Cleveland  were  rebuilt  to-day  with  concrete  $53,000,000 


370    CONTRACTORS'  AND  BUILDERS'  HANDBOOK 

would  be  saved  the  people.  On  municipal  buildings,  sewers, 
paving,  sidewalks,  and  bridges,  the  saving,  if  they  were  built 
of  concrete,  would  be  about  $6,800,000,  and  figuring  from  the 
tax  duplicate  for  this  year  that  $231,500,000  represents  build- 
ings, the  saving  would  be  about  one-fifth  that,  or  about 
$46,000,000.  The  fire  loss  in  Cleveland,  I  understand,  will 
amount  to  something  like  a  million  for  the  year.  Of  this,  the 
loss  of  some  $700,000  on  buildings  would  be  entirely  saved  and 
the  loss  of  some  $400,000  on  contents  would  be  but  one-tenth 
of  that. 

" '  Cleveland  is  a  beautiful  city  now,  but  10  years  from  now, 
if  you  were  to  come  here  from  a  foreign  land,  you  might  think 
you  had  come  to  Greece  of  several  thousand  years  ago,  it  would 
be  so  changed  by  the  concrete  architecture.' " 

Mr.  Humphrey  is  not  the  only  one  who  is  dreaming  rein- 
forced concrete  dreams.  In  the  Cosmopolitan  for  February, 
1911,  Mr.  Edison  says  we  are  foolish  in  sticking  to  old 
materials.  "  Builders  who  stick  to  brick  and  steel  are  behind 
the  times.  Within  thirty  years  all  construction  will  be  of 
reinforced  concrete." 

The  age  of  reinforced  concrete  is  certainly  before  us, — but 
the  age  of  stone,  steel,  and  brick  is  not  gone.  "  Never 
prophesy  unless  you  know,"  is  an  old  maxim,  and  all  we 
can  do  is  to  make  a  guess.  Here  is  mine: 

Granite,  marble,  stone,  brick,  terra  cotta,  steel,  and  rein- 
forced concrete  will  be  the  coming  materials,  and  the  old- 
timers  will  be  used  more  than  they  are  now.  There  is  room 
enough,  and  glory  enough  for  all,  including  the  newcomer, 
at  which  the  stone  journals  might  as  well  stop  jeering  to  please 
their  advertisers,  who  will  not  let  them  tell  the  truth. 

But  granite,  marble,  and  limestone  Avill  be  used  more  for 
useful  buildings  than  for  useless  mausoleums.  That  memo- 
rial business  will  die  out  as  it  deserves  to.  Properly  under- 
stood, Egypt  and  the  Taj  Mahal  were  the  end  of  it — size  for 
Egypt,  and  beauty  for  the  Taj.  There  will  be  splendid  work 
for  stone  workers  in  the  future,  but  it  will  be  useful  as  well 
as  beautiful.  To  wood  houses  and  tombs  the  age  says, 

FINIS. 


INDEX 


Ability,    28 
Abstract,    80,    126 
Acceptance  of  work,   12,  115, 

116 

Adding  machine,  88 
Adjoining   building,    118 
Alhambra,  357 
Allowances,   118 
Amount  invested  in  buildings, 

Preface 

Anchors,  212,  298,  299 
Ancient  triumphs,  348-357 
Architect,  definition,   1 
Architects,  two  kinds,  2 
Architects'   Union,    10-12 
Areas  of  circles,  160,  161 
Areas  of  polygons,  182 
Areas  of  segments,  183 
Ashlar,  measurement,  41 
Automobile,   fire,   312 
Auxiliaries,    82 
Average  bid,  58,  59 


B 


Babylon,  349,  350 

Bank  checks,  30,  75,  97,  130, 

131 
Banking    ethics,    19,    24,    25, 

51 

Barrel,  167 
Basement  floors,  290 
Base  plates,  265,  266 
Beams,    steel,    215,    216,    218, 

228 

Beams,  table  of  steel,  252 
Beams,  table  of  wood,  237 
Bearing  of  soil,   191 
Bells,   356 
Best  work,  76 


Bids: 

acceptance  of,  108 

as  contracts,  108 

average,  58,  59 

by   schedules,   59 

complete  or   separate,   64 

extras  on,  48 

on  government  work,  108 

opening  of,   3 

percentage  on,  47 

time  limit  on,  16 

too  many,   3 

unbalanced,  59 

when   to   hand   in,    48 

written,    23,    48,    107 
Bill  of  material,  72 
Blame,  assuming,  4 
Bolts,   69 

Bonds,  masonry,  217,  275,  278 
Bonds,    surety,    19,    62,    142, 

143 

Bookkeeping,   89-100 
Books,  340,  342-347 
Borrowing  from  bank,  24,  51 
Borrowing  from  dealers,  23 
Borrowing  on  a  lien,  19 
Brainwork,  321,  333 
Bribery,  13 
Brick,  soft,  41 
Brickwork    measurement,    40, 

41,   102 

Brickwork,  general,  15,  349 
Bridges,  239,  347,  351 
Broadgauge  men,  332 
Buddhas,   356 
Builders'   Exchange,    83 
Builders'  danger,   106 
Builders'  law,  106-137 
Buildings,    distance    between, 

307 

Business  college,   328,  329 
Buying  material,  71,  72,  80 
371 


372 


INDEX 


Cap  stones,  218 
Card  index,  88,  98 
Card,    master,    98 
Carpentry,   estimating,   44 
Carpentry,  time  on,  102 
Carving,  147,  352,  355,  357 
Cast  iron,  257 
Cast  iron  columns,   235,   243, 

244,  257 

Cast  iron  columns,   rectangu- 
lar,   246-251 
Cast  iron  columns,  weight  of, 

245,  246 

Cast  iron  lintels,  259-264 
Catalogues  of  iron,  266 
Cathedrals,  357 
Caution  about  churches,  76 
Ceilings,  weight  of,  187,  189 
Cement : 

capacity  of  barrel,  272 

kinds  of,  206 

production,    267 

sidewalks,    287-289 
Census  reports,  316,  319 
Central  America,  356 
Certificate  of  payment,  8,  9 
Certified  check,  75 
Channels,  load  on,  251 
Chattel  mortgage,  128 
Cheap  labor,   104 
Checks,   30,   75,   97,    130,    131 

forged,  131 

-  raising,   85-87 

writing  of,  86 

Chimney  stacks,  221,  222 

steel,  222 

Chinese  wall  and  bridge,  351 
Circles,   160,   161,  255 
Cities,  choice  of,  317 
Cleveland,  an  ideal,  368-370 
Climate,   318,   319 
Closed  shop,  2,   10,   11 
Codes,  building,  212,  307,  314, 

368 

Color,   348 

Color  for  stucco,  295 
Colosseums,  two,  356 
Columns,  pipe,  load  on,  251 


Columns,    C.    I.       (See    Cast 

iron) 

Commas,    106 
Commission  on  repairs,  20 
Competition,   58 
Concrete : 

bonding,  275 

cinder,  285-287,  301 

city  of,   368-370 

facades,  275 

floor  weights,  187 

footings,  39 

foundations,  206 

freezing,  274 

general,  267 

hardening,  16 

lintels,  220 

measurement,   39 

mixing,   146,  273 

piles,   39 

placing,   274 

proportions,  272,  273 

reinforced,    16,    40,    274 

slabs,    276-279,    280-284 

time   on,    101 

walls,    309 

Contractors'  Union,  58 
Contracts : 

cost  plus,  55-57 

finished,   135 

for    "  repairs  "    dangerous, 
115 

informal,  25 

laws,    107-114 

lump  sum,  etc.,  54,  56,  58 

model   forms,   50,   51 

percentage,  55 

uniform,  50,  51 

what  is  included,  7 

written,  52 
Cord,    167 

Correspondence  schools,  331 
Cost  guarantee,   57 
Cost   keeping,    101-104 
Cost,    net,    46 
Cost  of  40  per  cent.,  105 
Cost  per  sq.  ft.,  366,  367 
Cost  plus,  55-57 
Courtesy,  26 
Cranes,  82 


INDEX 


373 


Cubic  measurement,  40 
Curbs,  290 

Currency   or   checks,   29 
Cyclone  insurance,   113 
Czarlets,  21,  26-29 

D 

Damage  suits,  118 

Damp,   16,   17 

Dangers,   15,   139 

Day's  work,  29,   64 

Death    list,    139 

Decimals,      154-157,      180-182, 

196 

Deeds,  126,  127 
Defective  work,  115 
Delay,  64,  70,  73 
De  Pontibus,  347 
Depreciation,   81,    124 
Details,   4,   5,    36,    75 
Direction,  joists,  43 
Divisions  of  U.  S.,  316 
Doing,    by,    32 
Dombey  &  Son,  322 
Doors  opening  out,  311 
Dotted  lines,  35 
Drawing,   322 

Dreams  of  concrete,  368-370 
"Dunces,"   338 
Duodecimals,  184,  185 

E 

Edison,    33,   239,    370 

Education,  321-341 

Egypt,  351-353 

Electric  work,  312 

Elevators,   35,   311,   367 

Ellora,  355 

Engineers,  29,  99 

Environment,  315 

Estimate,   to  be  doubled,    14 

Estimating  carpentry,  44 

Estimating,  method,  39-49 

Europe,  334 

Excavation,  37,  38,  101,  323 

Expanded  metal  and  concrete 

slabs,    276-284 
Expanded  metal  lath,  weight 

of,  284,  285,  294 


Expenses,  48,  98 
Explanations,  15 
Extras,  13,  14,  18,  117 


Fagades,  concrete,  275 
Failures  in  business,  61 
Files,  87,   103 
Finish,  time  on>  103 
Fire: 

damage,  105,  298,  300,  305, 
306,  370 

department,  model,  307 

doors,    309 

escapes,  314 

fighting,  312 

floor,    312 

general,   27 

limits,  314 

number  of,  307 

stops,    313 
Fireproof  office,  83 
Fixed  sum  contracts,  58 
Flagstones,   42 
Floors : 

concrete,   42,    267,    290 

damp-proof,  238 

fireproof,  312 

hardwood,   44 

loads,  195,  198,  200-202,  223- 
225,   235,   236 

strips,  279 

weights,  185-187 
Flue  dangers,  311 
Flushing  for  excavation,  38 
Footings,   68 
Foreclosure,   128 
Foremen,  28,  29,  100 
Forged  checks,  85,  131 
Forms,   69,    102,   267-271,  279 
Foundations,  12,  191-197,  205 

dangers,  115 

piers,   198-200 

pile,   202 

post,  204 

Free   literature,   346 

F.    O.   B.    (Free  on   board), 

72 
Frost,  218 


374 


INDEX 


G 

Gas,   313 

Gasoline   danger,   313 

engines,  146 

Gentleman,  definition,  26 
Girders,  wood,  225,  227,  228, 

231-233 

Glass  sizes,  310 
Government  work    (bids  on), 

78,  108 
Grades,  72 
Grand  Opera  House,  Paris, 

358 

Guaranteed   cost,    54,    57 
Guaranty,   title,    127 


Hall,    largest,    353 

Hand  labor,  145-147,  321,  322, 

333 

Handling  material,  68 
"  Handling   men,"    two   ways, 

26,  29,  31 
Hardware,  46 
Hardwood  floors,  44 
Harvard,    321 
Hauling,    43,    190 
Headers,  brick,  299 
Heating,   302-304 
Height  of  stories,  41 
High   Schools,   323,   328,   335- 

339 

Hobson,  57 
Holidays,   legal,   107 
Houses,  not  desirable,  75 
Hurry  in  building,  15-17 


Ice  houses,   309 
Inferior  work,  298 
Insurance : 

cash,  30 

fire,   51,    128-130,    138,    139, 
305 

general,  113,  114 

liability,  119,  139,  141,  142 

rent,  126 
Iron  and  steel,  45 


Iron  shutters,  310 

Iron,  weight  of,  153,  154,  164 

Irrigation,   317 


Jewels,  357 
Jobbing,  76,  77 
Joists,  direction,  43 

in  general,  228-230,  232 

school,  224 

standards,  231 


K 


Keeping  costs,  99 
Kerosene  dangers,  313 
Keys,  keeping  of,  18 
Killed  and  wounded,   10,   139 


Land,  high  cost  of,  317 
Landlord  and  tenant,  124 
Languages,  323-327 
Law,   in   general,    19,   50,   56, 

107,   127 

Laying  out  building,  66,  67 
Leaning   towers,    358 
Leases,   124 
Ledger,   95,   97,   98 
Level,  builders,  67 
Liability,  62,  64,  65,  119,  136, 

139,  141,  142 
Libraries,    83,    339,    340,    342, 

344 

License  for   architects,    11 
Liens,   19,  50,  68,  74,   119-121 
Lightning  rods,  221,  314 
Li  Hung  Chang,  33 
Lincoln,  336 
Lintels,  stone,  220,  228 
Lintels,  cast  iron,  259-264 
Liquor,  30 

Loads    on   beams,    237 
Loads  on  floors,  195,  198-202. 

215,  223,  224 
Loan  associations,  179 
Location  in  U.   S.,  choice  of, 

316-320 


INDEX 


375 


Location  of  lots,  77 
Location  of  shop,  77 
Lot  and  building  values,  80 
Lot  line,  68 
Lumber  reckoner,  165 

seasoning,  16,  17 

strength   of,   229 

Lump   sum  contracts,   15,  54, 

56,  58 

M 

Mail  order  houses,  71,  72 
Machines,    145-149 
Manhood,  27,  28 
Marble  block,  largest,  353 
Master  card,  98 
Matches,  danger,  313 
Measurement  of  concrete,  39 

ashlar,  41 

trade,  42 

Men  required,  number  of,   69 
Mensuration,   158,   159,   183 
Metal  columns,  thick,  239 

ordinary,  235,  243-246 

frames,  309 

Method  of  buying  land,  79,  81 

contracting,  61-63 

taking  off  quantities,  37, 

39 

Metric  system,  360-365 
Mexico,  318 
Milan,  357 
Mill    construction,    233,    234, 

238 

Millwork,  44 
Mind  training,  327,  347 
Model  city,  367 
Money  making,  83 
Mortar,  14,  213,  217,  299,  311 
Mortgages,  50,   125,   127,   128, 

143 

"Mr.",  28 
Mud,   38 
Municipalities,  model,  339 

N 

Name  or  number,  29 
National  and  state  contracts, 
10,  21,  78,  108 


Nineveh,  350 
Notes,    131,    132 
Novels,  339 

Number  engaged  in  building, 
Preface 


Office  equipment,  82 

expenses,  100 

Old  structures,   118 
Openings    for    contractors,    4, 

316-320 
Overcoating,   293 


Paint,  45,  103 
Papers,  trade,  34 
Parnell,  33 

Partition,  plaster,  238 
Partition,  weights,  186 
Partnership,   121-123 
Party  wall,   211,   212 
Patents,  risk,  118 
Pay  day,  weekly,  31 
Payment,   certificate  of,   8,  9, 

17 
Payment  in  cash,   72 

to  subcontractors,  18 

to  supply  men,  18,  23 

Pebble  dash,  291 
"  Peddling  bids,"  22 
Percentage  work,  55 
Percentage  of  profit,  47 
Perches,   40,    167 
Perseverance,  32 
Photographs,  value  of,  13 
Piers,    198-200,   215,   217,   242 
Piles,  39,  202-204 
Pipe,  weight  of  iron,  47 
Pipes,  hot,  312 
Pittsburg  Survey,  105 
Planing  mills,  146 
Plan  reading  easy,  34 
Plans    and    specifications    in 

one,  7 

Plans,  hints  on,  35 
Plaster  cracking,  229 
dust,  34 


376 


INDEX 


Plaster  measurement,  45 

time  on,   103 

—  weights,   187 

Plates,  bearing,  253,  265,  266 
Platform  for  concrete,  273 
Plumbing,  6,  47,  72 
Popular-technical  books,  340 
Post-graduate  course,  334 
Posts,  wood,  boring,  242 

loading,  240,  241 

Power,    mechanical,    68,    146- 

149 

Power,  personal,  2,  22,  26 
Practical  men,  34 
Precedence  of  specifications,  7 
Price  book,  84 

Profit,  31,  46,  61,  75,  79,  117 
Prophecy,  368-370 
Pyramids,  351-356 


Q 


Quality,  material,  14,  15 

work,   6 

Quantities,  taking  off,  37,  49 
Questions,  33 


Raising  checks,  85-87 

Rats  and  health,  290 

Reading  plans  easy,  32-34 

Ready-made  houses,  79-80 

Ready  reckoners,   83 

Real  estate  men,  20,  80 

Records,  94 

Reinforced  work.  (See  con- 
crete ) 

Reinforced  work  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, 298-301 

Reinforced  concrete  city,  368- 
370 

Repairs,  commission,  20 

Repairs,  risky,  115 

Reserve  on  extras,  18 

Retaining  walls,  218,  219 

Risks,  62,  63,  80,  115,  118, 
140 

Rock,   38 

Rods,  steel,  253-255 


Romans,  356 
Roofing,   46 
Roof  plans,  35 
Roofs,  plank,  238 
Roof,  slope  of,  238 
Roof  weights,  187,  190 
Ropes,  256,  257 
Rough  cast,  291 
Rubble,  41,  102,  206 
Rust,  285 

S 

Safe  deposit  vault,  84 

Safes,  bad,  84 

St.  Peter's,  354 

Saloon  payment,  30 

San  Francisco,  298 

Saracens,  357 

Scales,  36,  37,  71 

Schedule  bids,  59 

Scholars,  number  of,  337 

Scuppers,  232,  235 

Sections,  35 

Security  for  two,  19 

Self-government,  27 

Settlement,  117 

Sewer  pipe,  47,  190 

Sewers,  207,  208 

Sharing,  31,  61 

Sheet  piling,  38 

Shingles,  308,  339 

Shoring,  213 

Shorthand,  32,  328 

Shrinking  lumber,  17 

Shutters,  iron,   310 

Sidewalks,   concrete,   42,   287- 
289 

Siding,  308 

Sills,  42 

Sizes,  118 

Sky-piercers,  358-359,  365-368 

Slab  tables,  276-279,  280-284 

Smoking-room,  313 

Soils,  192,  193 

Solomon's  Temple,  354 

Specifications : 

and  plans  combined,  7 
coming  before  plans,  7 
conditions  in,  52,  53 


INDEX 


377 


Specifications : 

dangerous,  36 

final  authority,  5 

general  clauses,  6,  7 

numbering,  7 
Spheres  in  building,  2 
Sphinx,  352 

Square,  builders',  46,  167 
Squaring,  67,  169 
Square  root,  167-169 
Squares,  tables  of,  170-180 
Stacks,  chimney,  221,  311 
Stairways,  35,  310 
Standards,  5,  103,  266 
Statements,  94,  95 
Statesmen,  27,  29 
Status  of  architect,  1 
Steel  beams,  215,  216,  218,  228 
Stickability,  32 
Stone  bids,  42 
Stone  bridge,   351 
Stone,  cut,   72 
Stone  lintels,  220 
Stone  road,  352 
Stonework,  352,  354 
Stories,  height  of,  211 
Strikes,   27 
Strips,  floor,  279 
Stucco,  291-294 
Sub  and  general  contractors,  48 
Subcontractors,  22,  25 

share   of   estimates,    18, 

22,  23,  31 

Subcontract,  model,  52 
Subletting,  61,  62,  64 
Substitutes,  dangers  of,  117 
"  Success,"  13 
Superintendent,  10 
Supplies,  23,  24 
Surety  bonds,  19,  62,  142,  143 
System,  69,  82,  87,  99 


Tables,  for  whom,   151 
general,  152-166 

of  beam  loads,  237 

of   slabs,   concrete,   276- 

279,  280-284 

of  squares,  170-180 


Taj   Mahal,  354 

Tanks,  capacity  of,  162,  163 

Taxes,  335 

Teaming,   1,   190 

Technical  schools,  329,  330 

Telephone,   68,    88 

Terra  cotta,  weight,  187 

Testing  soils,    193 

Texas,    76,   318,    320 

Theory,  1,  2 

Thermometer,  38 

Tiling,  weight,    189 

Timbuctoo,  58,  60 

Time  in  building,   15,   17,  57, 

112,   113 

Time  in  estimating,  43 
Time    sheets,    104 
Title  guaranty,  126 
Title  to  ground,  109 
Toise,  167 

Tombs,  354,  355,  370 
Too   many   helpers,    100 
"Tr.",  33 

Trade  course,  331,  332 
Trade  measurements,  40,  42 
Trade  papers,  34 
Trade  schools,  337,  338,  341 
Trees,   cutting,    101 
Trees  at   sidewalk,   290 
Trial  balance,  88 
Trusts,  59 
Typewriter,  88 
Tyranny,  petty,  27,  28 

U 

Uniform    Contracts     (U.     C.) 

best,  50,  52 

Union,  architects',  10,  11,  12 
Union,  contractors',  58 
Unit  price,  59 
Upsetting,  256 
Useful  numbers,  157 


Verbal  agreements,  5,  53 

W 

Wages  in  checks,  30 


378 


INDEX 


Wagon  load,   190 
Wainscoting,  313 
Walls,  thickness,  etc.,  209 
Waste,  27,  31,  43,  146 
Wasting  time,  22,  49 
Washing  and  pointing,  42 
Water,  cost,  43 
Waterproofing,  296,  297 
Water  supply,  207 
Weights: 

business  building,  194 

foundation,  192 


Weights: 

frame  house,  194,  196 

iron,  153,  154,  164 

special,  185-190 

various  substances,  165,  166, 

188,  189 

Weights  and  measures,  152,  153 
When    to   build,    14 
Wills,   132-135 
Wood  girders,  225-227,  237 
Wood  plugs,  311 
Workmen  and  fair  dealing,  26 


SOME  USEFUL  BOOKS 

Selected  from  the  List  of  Live  Up-to-date  Work 

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The  Building  Age 

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BUILDING    CONSTRUCTION    AND    SUPER- 
INTENDENCE, CARPENTRY, 
JOINERY,  ETC. 

Kidder's    Building    and    Construction    and    Superinten- 
dence.— Size  of  volumes,  7x9  3-4  ins.    Sold  separately. 

Part    i — Mason's    Work.      Ninth    Edition;    Revised    and 
Enlarged  by  Thomas  Nolan.     992  pages;  628  illustra- 
tions.    Cloth  bound.  Price,  $6.00 
Treats    broadly    on    everything    comprised    under    the 
heads    of    Foundations    on    Firm    Soils;    Foundations    on 
Compressible   Soils;     Masonry    Footings  and   Foundation 
Walls;  Shoring  and  Underpinning;    Limes,    Cements    and 
Mortars     Building     Stones;     Cut-stonework;     Brick     and 
Brickwork;    Architectural    Terra    Cotta;    Fireproofing    of 
Buildings;    Concrete   and    Reinforced    Concrete    Construc- 
tion;   Iron    and    Steel    Supports    for    Masonwork-Skeleton 
Construction;  Lathing  and  Plastering;  Specifications. 

Special  attention  is  given  to  fireproofing  and  concrete, 
both  reinforced  and  plain.  Foundations  has  received 
careful  consideration,  and  many  examples  of  the  latest 
and  most  approved  work  in  recent  structures  on  difficult 
soils  are  shown. 

Part  2 — Carpenter's  Work.     Seventh   Edition;  544  pages; 
537  illustrations;  14  tables.     Cloth  bound,  Price,  $4.00. 
This  work  is  much  more  than  a  treatise  on  carpentry. 
It  covers  the  work  and  manipulation  of  materials,  in  con- 
nection with  any  character  of  construction  that  ^could  be 
included  in   a   set  of   carpenter's   specifications,   including 
interior   trim    and    equipment,    light   and    heavy    framing, 
etc.,  all  well  illustrated. 


Part  3 — Trussed    Roofs    and    Roof    Trusses..     By    F.  E. 

Kidder.    Second  edition.    300  pages;  306  illustrations. 

Cloth  bound.  Price,  $3.00 

This  work  is  designed  more  particularly  for  the  use  of 
architects.  It  is  therefore  not  so  well  suited  to  the  re- 
quirements of  builders  and  carpenters  as  the  author's 
"Strength  of  Beams,  Floors  and  Roofs,"  but  it  describes 
plainly  nearly  every  type  of  roof  construction  commonly 
met  with  in  buildings, and  points,  out  the  advantages  of 
the  different  types  of  wooden  and  steel  trusses  for  differ- 
ent spans  and  building  requirements.  It  explains  the 
process  of  computing  the  loads,  drawing  the  stress  dia- 
gram and  proportioning  the  members  and  points  to  the 
stresses.  The  mechanical  principles  are  clearly  set  forth 
and  the  method  of  obtaining  the  stresses. 

Kidder's    Strength    of    Beams,    Floors    and    Roofs.— 230 

pages.    Size,  51-2x8  ins.;   164  engravings;  21   tables 
and  diagrams.     Cloth  bound.  Price,  $2.00 

It  explains  the  mechanical  principles  of  all  ordinary 
types  of  wooden  trusses,  and  the  methods  of  computing 
the  stresses  and  proportioning  the  members. 

Gives  new  light  on  making  and  estimating  the  strength 
of  truss  joints. 

Illustrates  a  variety  of  types  of  approved  wooden 
trusses. 

Points  out  common  mistakes  in  designing  which  often 
result  disastrously. 

Dustman's  Book  of  Plans  and  Building  Construction.— 
238  pages.  Size,  9  x  13  ins.  Oblong.  Bound  in 
cloth.  Price,  $2.00. 

A  practical  treatment  of  all  phases  of  construction,  with 
many  tables  and  diagrams,  and  including  comprehensive 
articles  on  estimating  time,  labor  and  material,  specifica- 
tion writing  and  plan  reading. 

There  is  also  given  an  excellent  collection   of  designs 
of    attractive    cottages    and    double    houses    of    moderate 
cost,  with  exterior  views,  floor  plans  and  details. 
Building     Superintendence.— By     Edward     Nichols.      200 
pages.  Size,  63-4  x  93~4  ins.   Cloth  bound.  Price,  $1.50 
This  is  a  working  guide  to  the  requirements  of  modern 
American   building   practice   and   the   systematic   supervi- 
sion of  building  operations. 

The  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket  Book.— The  Fif- 
teenth Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged.  1700  pages; 
1000  engravings;  morocco  binding.  Price,  $5-<>o. 


In  the  author's  own  words,  it  is  "a  general  index  to  the 
many  lines  of  work,  methods,  materials  and  manufactured 
products  entering  into  the  planning,  construction  and 
equipment  of  buildings." 

The  new  edition  contains  extended  chapters  on  fire- 
proofing  and  reinforced  concrete. 

A  modern  construction  handbook,  indispensable  to  the 
professional  man  and  the  student  of  to-day. 

Martin's  Details  of  Building  Construction. — Containing 
33  quarto  plates  with  sectional  views,  working  details 
and  full  memoranda,  for  the  construction  of  doors, 
windows,  casements,  gutters,  cornices,  and  other 
finish.  Large  quarto.  Cloth.  Price,  $2.00. 

DESIGNS     FOR     HOUSES,     BUNGALOWS, 
CHURCHES,    STORES,    SCHOOLS,    BARNS,    ETC. 

The  following  books  afford  invaluable  suggestion  on 
the  design  and  construction  of  modern  dwellings,  etc., 
showing  views  and  plans  of  successful  structures  that 
have  been  designed  and  built  by  able,  praticing  archi- 
tects. 

No  class  of  books  give  more  for  so  little,  or  serve  so 
many  useful  purposes  to  builders  and  those  intending  to 
build. 

The  Carpentry  and  Building  Series  of  Designs,  com- 
prising the  five  following  volumes,  are  very  complete, 
giving  perspectives,  elevations,  floors,  plans  and  details  of 
construction  drawn  to  scale.  Each  of  the  volumes  of  this 
series  contains  200  or  more  pages  on  fine  plate  paper. 
The  size  of  pages  is  9  x  13  inches,  oblong.  Price,  $1.00 
each.  Per  set,  Delivered,  $4.50. 
No.  i — Cottage  Designs  with  Constructive  Details. — 

Containing  25   designs   of  simple   cottages   originally 

costing  from  $600  to  $1500. 
No.    2 — Low-Cost    Houses    with    Constructive    Details. — 

Containing  upward  of  25  designs  of  cottages  costing 

originally  from  $750  to  $2500. 
No.  3 — Modern  Dwellings  with    Constructive    Details. — 

Containing  plans    costing   approximately   from   $2800 

to  $7000. 
No.   4 — Suburban    Homes    with   Constructive    Details. — 

Containing   plans   costing   approximately   from   $5000 

to  $20,000. 
No.  5 — Cement  Houses  and    Garages    with  Constructive 

Details. — Containing    about    30     designs     of     artistic 

structures.    Approximate  cost  of  house  from  $2500  to 

$10,000. 


PLAIN    AND     REINFORCED     CONCRETE, 
CEMENTS,  MORTARS,  ETC. 

Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced,  Materials, 
Construction  and  Design  of  Concrete  and  Rein- 
forced Concrete. — New  Edition.  By  F.  W.  Taylor 
and  S.  E.  Thompson.  807  pages;  237  figures.  Cloth 
bound.  Price,  $5.00. 

Designed  for  the  use  of  architects  and  engineers. 
Treats  the  manipulation  and  uses  of  concrete  for  con- 
structive and  engineering  purposes.  Special  chapter  on 
concrete  building  construction,  page  608  to  636. 

Concrete  and  Reinforced  Concrete  Construction. — By 
Homer  A.  Reid.  906  pages;  715  illustrations;  70 
tables.  Cloth.  Price,  $5.00. 

The  largest  work  on  the  subject — modern  and  author- 
itative in  every  respect.  Contains  a  special  chapter  on 
building  construction,  pages  465  to  572.  Among  the  con- 
tents are  200  working  drawings  of  buildings  and  founda- 
tions, including  shops,  roundhouses,  etc.,  with  descrip- 
tions. 

Reinforced  Concrete. — A  treatise  on  Cement,  Concrete 
and  Concrete  Steel  and  their  Application  to  Modern 
Structural  Work.  By  Walter  L.  Webb,  C.  E.,  and 
W.  H.  Gibson.  129  pages;  57  illustrations.  Substan- 
tially bound  in  cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 

This  book  is  designed  for  the  architect,  builder,  con- 
tractor and  engineer,  who  will  find  it  to  contain  a  concise 
treatment  on  the  manipulation  and  uses  of  reinforced  con- 
crete, based  on  recent  construction  work,  with  descrip- 
tions and  illustrations  of  typical  practice.  The  contents 
are  arranged  in  five  divisions,  as  follows:  Cement  and 
Cement  Testing;  Mixing  and  Measuring  Concrete;  De- 
positing and  Finishing  Concrete;  General  Theory  of 
Flexure  in  Reinforced  Concrete;  Structural  Applications. 

Cement  and  Concrete. — By  L.  C.  Sabin.     504  pages;  161 

tables  of  tests.     Cloth.  Price,  $5.00. 

A  treatise  designed  especially  for  American  engineers, 
covering  the  manufacture,  properties  and  testing  of  ce- 
ment, and  the  preparation  and  use  of  cement  mortars 
and  concretes.  Special  attention  is  given  to  the  costs  of 
cement  and  concrete  for  different  uses  and  under  various 
conditions. 


Hand-Book  for  Superintendents  of  Construction,  Archi- 
tects, Builders  and  Building  Inspectors. — By  H.  G. 
Richey.  742  pages;  357  figures.  Morocco.  $4.00. 

Treats  all  divisions  of  modern  constructive  practice,  in- 
cluding extended  sections  on  stone  masonary,  brickwork, 
concrete  and  fireproofing  construction,  terra  cotta,  lath- 
ing, plastering,  lime,  cement,  sand,  mortar,  etc. 

Cost  Data.— By  H.  P.  Gillette.  Second  Edition.  1900 
pages.  Illustrated.  Morocco  binding.  Price,  $5.00. 

Contains  representative  data  on  costs  of  concrete  and 
concrete  steel  structures  and  the  best  methods  of  con- 
struction. Every  detail  of  contract  work  has  been  des- 
cribed and  recorded,  and  the  cost  of  labor  and  materials 
carefully  noted. 

Concrete    Construction,    Methods    and    Cost. — By    H.    P. 

Gillette  and  C.  S.  Hill.     700  pages;  306  illustrations. 
Cloth  bound.    Size,  6x9  ins.  Price,  $5.00. 

A  valuable  aid  in  estimating  concrete  work  of  all  kinds. 
The  various  designs  of  forms  and  centers  and  the  layout 
of  plant  for  mixing,  conveying  and  placing  concrete  re- 
ceive the  most  complete  treatment  ever  given  these  im- 
portant subjects. 

Modern  Cement  Sidewalk  Construction. — By  C.  Palliser. 
64  pages.  Cloth.  Price,  50  cents. 

Full  directions  for  testing  and  mixing  materials;  laying 
finishing,  seasoning  and  coloring  sidewalks,  curbs  and 
gutters. 

Cement  Workers'  Hand-Book.— By  W.  H.  Baker.  98 
pages.  Cloth  Price,  50  cents. 

A  handy  pocket  guide  to  the  mixing  and  handling  of 
cements,  mortars  and  concretes  for  building  and  other 
purposes — a  book  for  the  workman,  covering  more  than 
fifty  of  the  most  important  subjects  on  cement  and  its 
uses  in  construction. 

Instructions  to  Inspectors  on  Reinforced  Concrete  Con- 
struction and  Concrete  Data. — By  G.  P.  Carver.  124 
pages.  Pamphlet.  Pocket  size.  Price,  50  cents. 

A  book  of  important  data  relating  to  the  best  forms  of 
construction  and  the  proportioning,  mixing  and  compact- 
ing of  materials. 


How  to  Use  Portland  Cement. — By  S.  S.   Newberry.     29 

pages.     Pamphlet.  Price,  50  cents. 

A  practical  treatise  on  the  testing  and  uses  of  Portland 
cement,  prepared  chiefly  for  contractors  and  masons. 

Practical    Concrete   Block   Making. — By    C.    Palliser.     75 

pages.  Cloth.  Price,  50  cents. 

Everything  from  making  of  molds  and  selection  of 
material  to  the  laying  of  the  seasoned  block  is  simply  ex- 
plained. 

Concretes,    Cements,    Mortars,    Plasters    and    Stuccoes; 
How  to   Make  and   How  to   Use  Them. — By   F.   T. 

Hodgson.     520  pages;  150  illustrations.     Substantially 
bound  in  cloth.  Price,  $1.50. 

An  extensive  compilation  of  valuable  material,  cover- 
ing recent  methods  and  improvements  in  the  mixing,  pro- 
portioning and  application  of  plaster,  mortar,  stucco  and 
cement.  Contains  a  considerable  amount  of  matter  on 
reinforced  concrete  work.  A  serviceable  handbook  for 
the  builder. 

Practical  Stone  Masonry  Self-Taught. — By  F.  T.  Hodg- 
son. 300  pages;  180  illustrations.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 
An  invaluable  book  for  the  operative  mason,  treating 
methods  of  building  walls  in  rustic  rubble,  ashler  square, 
uncoursed,  random  coursed,  irregular  corners,  snecked 
and  square  rubble,  polygonal  ragwork,  and  other  styles 
of  masonry  and  stone-cutting  are  explained  and  illus- 
trated. Finished  stones,  such  as  window  sills,  window 
heads,  coping,  arch  stones,  keystones,  and  similar  dress- 
ings, are  described  and  illustrated.  Stone  arches  and 
joints  are  described  and  illustrated,  with  ample  instruc- 
tions for  working  them. 

Masonry  Construction. — By    A.    E.    Phillips    and    A.    T. 
Byrne.  145  pages;  44  illustrations.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 
A  handbook  of  practical  information  for  stonemasons, 
stonecutters,    bricklayers,    cement   and    concrete    workers, 
etc.,  describing  the  various  kinds  of  building  stone;  man- 
ufacture of  brick,  cement  and  mortar;   methods  of  test; 
foundation    work,    pile-driving;    dam    and    wall    construc- 
tion;  arch  and  bridge   construction;   reinforced  concrete, 
etc. 

Practical   Bricklaying   Self-Taught.— By   F.   T.    Hodgson. 

277  pages;  330  illustrations.     Cloth.         Price,  $1.00. 
This  book  is  one  of  the  latest  on  the  subject,  treating 
bricklaying  in    such  a   way   as   will   enable   the   attentive 


student  to  execute  almost  any  kind  of  practical  and  artis- 
tic work.  Covers  all  important  subjects,  such  and  bond, 
ornamental  brickwork,  damp  courses,  quality  of  brick- 
work, forming  of  pilasters,  quoins,  skew  arches,  splay 
work,  brick  joints,  chimneys,  fireplaces,  flues,  brick  pav- 
ings, etc. 

DRAWING:       ARCHITECTURAL,       MECHANICAL 
AND  STRUCTURAL. 

Architectural  Drawing. — By  C.  F.  Edminster.  Size,  7x9 
inches.  242  pages,  including  105  full-page  plates. 
Cloth  bound.  Price,  $2.00. 

Presenting  a  practical  and  complete  course  in  the  ele- 
ments of  architectural  drawing,  designed  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  tradesmen,  draftsmen  and  students. 

Practical   Lessons  in  Architectural  Drawing. — By  W.   B. 
Tuthill.     61  pages  n  1-2x7  i~4  inches.     33  full  page 
plates  and  33  illustrations.         Cloth.       Price,  $2.50. 
This  work  contains  scale  drawings  of  plans,  elevations,. 

sections  and  details  of  frame,  brick  and  stone  buildings, 

with  full  descriptions  and  specifications. 

A  Manual  of  Mechanical  Drawing. — By  P.  D.  Johnston. 

224  pages;    134  illustrations;   69   full-page   plates   and 

2  folding  plates.     Cloth  bound.     Size,  9   1-4  x  7   1-4 

inches.     (Oblong.)  Price,  $2.00. 

This   work  is   widely  known   and  recommended   for   its 

simple  and  comprehensive  treatment  of  the  subject. 

Structural  Drawing. — By  C.  F.  Edminster.  Size,  7x9 
ins.  153  pages,  including  71  full-page  plates.  Cloth 
bound.  Price,  $2.50. 

An  important  aid  to  the  student  who  aims  to  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  structural 
drafting,  with  a  well-graded  course  of  instruction  as  ap- 
plied to  the  drawing  of  standard  forms,  columns,  girders, 
trusses  and  framing  details.  The  subject  matter  and 
scope  of  the  chapters  are  as  follows: 

Blue-Print  Making. — 28  pages.     Paper.     Price,  25   cents. 

Embracing  directions  for  constructing  the  printing 
frame,  preparing  the  paper,  and  making  prints  of  various 
kinds. 

How  to  Read  Plans. — 104  pages;  81  figures  and  a  complete 

set  of  plans  for  a  frame  cottage.     Price,  50  cents. 
A  simple,  practical  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  vari- 
ous lines,  marks,  symbols,  etc.,  used  on  working  drawings. 


ESTIMATING    AND     SPECIFICATION    WRITING. 

Estimating  the  Cost  of  Building. — By  Arthur  W.  Joslin. 
192  pages.  Illustrated.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 

This  book  presents  in  compact  and  handy  form  the 
author's  serial  articles  which  were  recently  published  in 
the  columns  of  "Carpentry  and  Building,"  where  they  at- 
tracted wide  interest  and  approval. 

The  work  is  practical,  analytical  and  thorough  in  style. 
It  will  be  an  excellent  prompter  and  guide  to  every  one 
who  has  to  do  with  building  costs  and  superintendence, 
constituting  as  it  does  a  systematic  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

There  are  important  chapters  on  "Estimating  the  Cost 
of  Building  Alterations"  and  on  "Systems  in  the  Execu- 
tion of  Building  Contracts." 

Hicks'  Builders'  Guide.— By  I.  P.  Hicks.  Revised  1910; 
twentieth  thousand.  168  pages.  Size,  5x6  3-4  ins. 
114  illustrations.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 

Presents  a  system  of  simple  and  practical  application 
for  estimating  materials  and  labor  chiefly  as  applied  to 
suburban  residential  work.  One  of  the  most  serviceable 
books  for  contractors  and  builders  as  well  as  for  car- 
penters, who  will  find  it  to  contain  also  a  very  complete 
treatment  on  framing  roofs  of  all  descriptions. 

The  "Guide"  was  designed  by  a  man  who  understood 
the  needs  of  the  young  carpenter  and  builder,  and  the 
knotty  problems  of  the  daily  work  are  solved  in  the  sim- 
plest and  best  ways. 

Estimating  Frame  and  Brick  Houses,  Barns,  Stables, 
Factories  and  Outbuildings — New  Edition,  1910. — By 
Fred  T.  Hodgson,  architect.  248  pages.  Illustrated. 
Size,  5x63-4  ins.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 

The  book  aims  to  give  a  careful  consideration  to  all  the 
items  and  elements  of  cost  in  construction,  beginning  at 
the  foundation  of  the  building  and  progressing  to  the 
finished  structure.  Young  contractors  and  builders  es- 
pecially will  find  it  to  cover  the  subject  in  a  plain,  practi- 
cal way,  with  detailed  consideration  of  cost  factors,  items 
and  quantities. 

There  is  a  detailed  estimate  of  a  $5000  house  and  addi- 
tions; detailed  estimates  of  kitchen,  dining  room,  parlor, 
den,  halls,  bedrooms,  conservatory,  basement,  bath  room, 
closets,  etc.,  all  figured  out  and  measured  by  the  quickest 
and  simplest  methods.  The  author  also  tells  how  to  es- 


timate  by  cubing,  by  the  square  of  floors  or  walls,  and 
by  the  process  of  comparison,  and  gives  hints  and  prac- 
tical suggestions  for  taking  measurements  and  making 
tenders  for  work. 

Estimating. — By    Edward    Nichols.      140   pages.      14   full- 
page  plates.     Cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 
Tells  how  to  go  about  making  an  estimate  intelligently. 
As  a  practical  example,  a    complete    plan  of    a  house  is 
given,  and  the   estimates    of  cost  are    worked   out  from 
this,  with  bills  of  material  and  working  data. 

Handy  Estimate  Blanks. — By  Kittredge  &  Sibley.  28 
pages,  9  1-2  x  12  ins.  Valuable  tables  of  Board  Meas- 
ure, Quantities  and  Weights  of  Materials,  etc.  Paper. 
Price  25  cents  each;  $2.50  per  dozen. 

These  blanks  have  been  prepared  with  the  idea  of  fur- 
nishing to  contractors  and  builders  a  convenient  form 
upon  which  to  make  an  estimate  and  record  of  cost  of 
work  which  they  figure  on  and  execute. 

Contracts  and  Specifications. — %  J.  C.  Plant.  130  pages. 

Fully  illustrated.     Cloth.  Price,  $1.00. 

A  practical  working  guide  for  the  contractor,  architect 
and  owner.  With  forms  and  an  explanation  of  duties 
and  responsibilities  incident  to  public  and  private  con- 
tracts. 

Hicks'  Specification  Blanks  for  Frame   or  Brick  Build- 
ings.— 18  pages;  size,  8  x  13  3-4  ins.     Single,  35  cents; 
per  dozen,  $4.00. 
Covers    everything   in    the   building;    carpenters'    work, 

masonry,  hardware,  plumbing,  heating,  painting,  tin  and 

sheetmetal  work,  etc. 

Eureka  Building  Specifications. 

Class    B — For   frame    Dwellings    of    Moderate    Cost, 

with  Plumbing  and  Heating.          Price,  40  cents. 
Class    D — For    Brick    Dwellings,    with    Plumbing   and 

Heating.  Price,  50  cents. 

Embraces  all  the  labor  and  materials  necessary  in  the 
erection  and  completion  of  the  building  in  all  its  parts. 


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